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http://jrn.sagepub.com Journal of Research in Nursing DOI: 10.1177/1744987106064211 2006; 11; 345 Journal of Research in Nursing Callista Roy and Nadine M. Linendoll Deriving international consensus on mentorship in doctoral education http://jrn.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/11/4/345 The online version of this article can be found at: Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com can be found at:Journal of Research in Nursing Additional services and information for http://jrn.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts: http://jrn.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from F O C U S Deriving international consensus on mentorship in doctoral education Callista Roy RN, PhD, FAAN Professor and Nurse Theorist William F. Connell School of Nursing, Boston College Nadine M. Linendoll MS, MDiv, APRN-BC Doctoral Student William F. Connell School of Nursing, Boston College Abstract Global collaboration to address issues in nursing is essential in the twenty-first century. Given the importance of doctoral education in the development of nursing as a discipline, understanding mentoring in doctoral education is significant. The International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing appointed a taskforce to define and describe the complex process of mentoring and to develop a position paper on mentoring in doctoral education. This paper describes this collaborative global project with the following aims: 1) to develop an international consensus paper on the complex process of mentoring to improve doctoral education worldwide and 2) to explicate activities that can enhance collaboration globally. Effective collaborative activities include the taskforce and the conference work, as well as the survey data collection. Collaborative activities were distributed across global regions. Multiple strategies of communication were used; however, face-to- face appears to be key. A high level of agreement was noted on the qualifications, responsibilities and expectations of a mentor. Some differences were found between countries in the area of a mentor’s role in accessing resources for students. Concluding recommendations are made for additional strategies to enhance the global participation in the final stages of the project and to assure that differences among countries are put into perspective. Key words international collaboration, doctoral education, mentoring, International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing Introduction Nursing as an academic and practice discipline has the power to improve global healthcare through international collaboration. Collaborative efforts occur on many levels, including projects initiated by the leadership of major organisations such as the International Council of Nurses (ICN), Sigma Theta Tau International (STTI), as an honorary society of nurses, and groups with a given focus such as the Inter- 345 Journal of Research in Nursing © 2006 SAGE PUBLICATIONS London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi VOL 11(4) 345–353 DOI: 10.1177/ 1744987106064211 jr n © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from national Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing (INDEN). STTI identifies collab- orative research as an essential component of knowledge development in nursing vital to the promotion of scientific practice (Sigma Theta Tau, 2003). Increasingly scholars in nursing plan and implement research that crosses international bound- aries and cultures. With improved travel and communication, many new opportunities for inter- national collaboration have emerged. This paper describes one global collaborative project with the following aims: 1) to develop an international consensus paper on the complex process of mentoring to improve doctoral education worldwide and 2) to explicate activities that can enhance collaboration globally. An account of the intensive process of collaboration is described and effective strategies to facilitate further global collaboration are offered. Background This study originated from the goals of an international nursing organisation, the International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing (INDEN). Members focused on the important need for mentoring relationships in learning to be research schol- ars. They envisioned a position paper that could be of help to the rapidly growing doctoral education programmes in nursing worldwide. INDEN: International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing In 1997 a group of nursing scholars formed INDEN, an organisation committed to the advancement of high-quality, global nursing education through international col- laboration. INDEN strives to create a common vision of doctoral education through the development of relevant guidelines and policies. An early collaborative project initiated by the Board of INDEN set out to define and describe the complex process of mentoring in doctoral education and to appoint an international taskforce to develop a position paper. Growth in doctoral education Current doctoral education builds on the growth of nursing education during the first half of the twentieth century. In the United States, the University of Minnesota was the first university to organise a nursing department in 1909, and then later to establish a baccalaureate degree programme in 1919. Just four years later, ten other colleges and universities had created additional nursing degree programmes. Pleased with the progress, but not completely satisfied, nursing leaders called for more. With great foresight into the increasing need for nurses in the USA, in 1948 Brown rec- ommended ‘That effort be directed to building basic schools of nursing in universi- ties and colleges, comparable in number to existing medical schools . . . adequate facilities and faculty, and well-distributed to serve the needs of the entire country’ (1948: 178). By 1949, 55 degree programmes of nursing existed in schools owned and operated by a university or college. Baccalaureate and masters programmes continued to grow in the USA, and in the second half of the twentieth century, doctoral education developed worldwide. In 1933 Columbia’s Teacher’s College began the first doctoral programme in nursing education. In 1954 the University of Pittsburgh created the first nursing PhD pro- gramme. There was a gradual development of new programmes until the 1980s Journal of Research in Nursing 11(4) 346 © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from when more rapid growth of doctoral programmes in the USA brought the number to 81 by 2003. The total number of doctoral programmes worldwide in 2003 included 273 pro- grammes in 31 countries (Ketefian and McKenna, 2005: 200). In the introduction of the INDEN-initiated book, Doctoral Education in Nursing: International Perspectives, Ketefian (2005) noted that visionary leaders spurred the growth of doctoral educa- tion throughout the world, and international foundations and government agencies facilitated this work through helpful resources and funding. She identified the links between the expansion of nursing research and the growth of doctoral education, and the important role that international collaborative research plays in this link. According to the numbers listed in 2003 by INDEN, Europe had 95 doctoral pro- grammes in nursing with by far the highest number in the United Kingdom (52) and Sweden with the second highest at eight programmes. Six Asian countries had 36 programmes in total, with Korea having 12 of these. There were 15 programmes located in South American countries, with Brazil having nine of these. The African countries had 18 programmes, with ten of these in South Africa. Australia had 15 programmes and New Zealand had two. Canada lists 11 doctoral programmes in nursing, adding to the 81 in the USA, making the total in North America 92. Mentoring In meeting the needs of doctoral education worldwide, a common concern among nurse educators is an understanding of the process of mentoring, which is so central to developing new doctoral-level research scholars in the field. This need prompted the first Board of INDEN to initiate an international collaborative project on mentor- ing. The project began by developing an understanding of the complex concept of mentoring. Most discussions of mentoring begin with recalling the origin of the term in Homer’s Odyssey (1999). The basic outlines of the story tell how Odysseus reigned as the king of a small Greek island and had one son, Telemachus. When his son was still an infant, Odysseus left his family to fight in the Trojan War. Before he left for the war, which legend states lasted more than ten years, Odysseus appointed Mentor, an old and trusted friend, to tutor Telemachus and serve as the guardian of his estate. The relevant literature addressing mentoring is summarised in two reviews by INDEN members. Gray and Roy (2005) noted that, in modern times, nursing schol- ars have identified that the language used to describe mentorship is confusing. Even though in 1978, Shapiro et al. called for clarification of concepts related to mentor- ing, multiple meanings have prevailed. Deriving a precise definition of a mentor seems impossible, as Merriam (1983) noted; the meaning of the term appears to be defined by the scope of a given investigation and the definition is influenced by a particular setting. Snelson et al. state that: ‘the use of mentoring in many areas of nursing has been documented in the nursing literature such as the development of clinical practitioners, researchers and educators (2002: 655). Adding to the confu- sion, some authors noted that the person fulfilling the role could be referred to as either a supervisor or a mentor. Gray and Roy (2005) reviewed the work of Vance, who as early as 1977 identi- fied the classic mentor–protégé relationship as one in which an older, more- experienced individual guides and supports a younger, less-experienced person. Vance studied nurse leaders and found that the mentoring relationship can include a combination of behaviours and roles that enhance both the professional and personal Roy and Linendoll Deriving international consensus on mentorship 347 © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from development of the protégé. Through modelling the desired behaviour, the mentor can enhance the learning of the protégé and provide an ongoing relationship. In summary, Vance (1982) noted that a mentor serves many roles, including: model, guide, teacher, tutor, coach, confidant and visionary-idealist. Early in the INDEN mentoring project, Roy et al. (2003) derived a set of assump- tions about the role of mentor: • Mentoring is a complex process • It requires multiple skills and abilities • It is a key process in the development and the socialisation of scholars • Skills can be instilled by understanding the process • Skills and abilities can be improved with practice and patience The authors selected two definitions as most useful. First, they defined mentoring as a process through which one, more senior, person facilitates the growth and devel- opment of another colleague, in a professional and educational context (Burnard and Morrison, 1993). Second, and somewhat more specifically, they define mentoring as an interpersonal process where a skilled practitioner helps one who is less experi- enced to achieve professional abilities and also offers counsel and support (Barber and Norman, 1987). Gray and Roy (2005) reviewed other authors’ perspectives on the roles and behav- iours of mentors: • The mentor is often older (Merriam, 1983; Arnoldussen and White, 1990) • He/she is more experienced and skilled than the protégé (Fagan and Fagan, 1983; Merriam, 1983; Davis, 1984; Hyde, 1988; Arnoldussen and White, 1990; Prestholdt, 1990) • He/she is a person with innate qualities of wisdom and faithfulness (May et al., 1982; Nyatanga and Bamford, 1990; Fields, 1991) Lastly, Prestholdt offered a definition of a mentor that reflects the majority of opin- ions and research findings: ‘Mentoring is viewed as a long term adult developmental process with active involvement in a close personal relationship. Mentors can serve as counsellors, teachers, sponsors, and guides for neophytes learning about their profes- sions and how to cope with dynamic workplace realities’ (1990: 26). Regardless of the particular context, role or title, what seems vital is that the mentoring process be as effective and transformative as possible. Methods The methods used in this collaborative project to reach consensus on the concept of mentoring included taskforce work, survey data collection, a consensus-building Delphi study, discussion and group work at conferences, and the drafting of a posi- tion paper. As noted, in 2001 at a strategic planning meeting, the board members of INDEN identified mentoring as a key concept in doctoral education. Later that year, at their biennial meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark, the INDEN Board members requested volunteers to explore the concept of mentoring. Two volunteers, one from the USA (Callista Roy), and one from South Africa (Valerie Ehlers), brainstormed ideas. The two corresponded by email suggesting various formats for collecting data about mentoring in their respective countries. Dr Roy worked with colleagues on her Journal of Research in Nursing 11(4) 348 © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from campus to define mentoring and to develop and pilot-test an instrument for obtain- ing opinions about the essential and preferable characteristics of the mentoring process. Dr Ehlers developed an instrument that included language specific to the programmes in her country. Concept clarification and tool development The USA researchers examined the multiple definitions of a mentor and the related documents to develop a survey tool. The researchers examined the following docu- ments to identify the behaviours and the desired abilities of the mentor, including: indicators of quality in research-focused doctoral programmes in nursing (AACN, 2001); INDEN Draft of Quality Indicators for doctoral programmes (INDEN, 2001); the University of Michigan Handbooks on Mentoring (Lewis, 2001) for both faculty and students; and work at the University of Maryland by Barbosa (2000). The survey instrument derived from this research included items on mentor qualifi- cations, mentor responsibilities, general expectations and student expectations. Examples of mentor qualifications included: the mentor has publications and/or pro- fessional recognition for research/scholarship expertise in a content area relevant to nursing; the mentor understands the philosophy, objectives, goals, curriculum and policies of the doctoral programme; and the mentor understands the internal and external procedures for obtaining approval for the conduct of research. Examples of mentor responsibilities include: the mentor provides opportunities for the student to network with other professionals and scholars in nursing and other disciplines; and the mentor has a commitment to the sustained time and effort required of a scholar and mentor in nursing. The respondents selected a response to each item as essential, preferable or optional. After administering a pilot format to 14 faculty and 17 students from one doctoral programme in the USA, some changes for clarity and relevance were made to the instrument. The INDEN Board appointed a Taskforce on Mentoring from among vol- unteers at their biennial meeting in Toronto, Canada, in 2003. Countries represented on the taskforce included Brazil, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The specific goals of the Taskforce were to: 1) define and describe the complex process of mentoring in doctoral education and 2) develop a position paper on mentoring in doctoral education. The revised 50- item instrument was distributed to taskforce members to collect data from an inter- national sample. Sample and survey Researchers employed several sampling strategies to obtain survey responses world- wide. First, they obtained convenience samples at several international conferences where participants completed and returned the survey onsite. In this way, the Taskforce members collected a total of 47 surveys in 2004 and 2005 from students and faculty from the following countries: Australia (18); USA (14); Thailand (six); UK (five); Philippines (one); Canada (one); Nigeria (one); Zimbabwe (one). In addition, one Taskforce member, Rosalina Rodriguez, translated the instrument into Spanish and Por- tuguese and returned 38 completed surveys from Brazil and four from Chile. Second, researchers used the results from this international sample to develop a USA two-round Delphi survey, using a Likert-scale adaptation of the survey instru- ment. They initiated a purposive sample of the 93 doctoral programmes in the USA Roy and Linendoll Deriving international consensus on mentorship 349 © 2006 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at ZHEJIANG UNIV on April 18, 2008 http://jrn.sagepub.comDownloaded from in 2005 to generate participation in an online computer survey programme. A faculty contact at each selected school received a mailed letter explaining the project and requesting the participation of ten faculty and students from that doctoral pro- gramme to complete the online two-round survey. The final sample included 180 responses for round one and 108 responses for round two of the target 250 respon- dents. As data collection was in progress, survey responses were reported at several conferences and reports of the work in progress by the Taskforce were published three times in the INDEN newsletter. At the business meeting of INDEN in Taipei, Taiwan, in May 2005, the Taskforce reported on the items of consensus and differences from the completed international survey. Faculty and students at the conference responded to the report and provided further input for drafting a position paper. Also during the meeting, five new nurse scholars (from Australia, Canada, Taiwan and Turkey) volunteered to work with the Taskforce to prepare the position paper for INDEN Conference in 2007. Findings Findings of this international project include both the collaborative process and the outcome of the process, that is, the consensus reached. Table 1 summarises the major collaborative activities used according to global regions and the number of doctoral programmes in each region. Taskforce members came from all regions, and helped to obtain 288 surveys on mentoring. Also, over 350 faculty and students of doctoral programmes participating in conferences held in seven countries discussed the project and had the opportunity to provide input. Theses conferences were held throughout the global regions, with the exception of South America. The survey data generated interesting findings related to the understanding of mentorship in doctoral education worldwide. There was a high level of consensus on about 80% of the items on the survey. For example, there was agreement on several mentor qualifications i