新版英语国家概况串讲资料~美国,加拿大,澳洲,新西兰部分

The United States of America Chapter Fourteen Population, Race and Ethnic Groups I. Characteristics of the American population A. the third most populous country in the world after China and India. B. a faster population growth, particularly after the 1990s; C. immigration as a source of population growth; Ellis Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1890s and at the turn of the century. D. population movement (or: mobility) from traditional manufacturing industries in the Northeast and Midwest to high-technology industries, whose growth has been most notable in the sunbelt states of the South and Mountain regions in such states as Arizona, Nevada, and Florida. * Five largest cities in the USA: New York City; Los Angeles; Chicago; San Francisco; Philadelphia; E. changes in age structure during the 1990s: Baby Boom (1946-1964) Ⅱ. Race relations in the United States A. Blacks (the African Americans) (a) The largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the United States (12.% of the whole population) (b) The first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619. \(c\) The slave system was formally ended by President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation issued in 1863 and the Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution in 1865. But even after the abolition of slavery as an institution, open and covet, organized or individual discrimination was practiced against black Americans. (d) In 1954, the case of Brown vs. Board of Education, in which the Supreme Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal". (e) The Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Riots broke out in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and other cities. (f) The Civil Rights Act of 1964: protections for the right to vote, to use public facilities, and enjoy the same education as white people. (g) The Voting Rights Act of 1965: guarantee the blacks and others the right to vote. Chapter Fifteen American History (I) (1600-1900) I. The discovery of the New World A. The Indians: the first Americans; about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago; B. Christopher Columbus: an Italian navigator, supported by the Spanish queen; in the late 15th century. 1492. "discovered" America; C. Amerigo Vespucci: the land named after him; Ⅱ. The Colonial Period: A. The first English colony in the Americas: at Jamestown, Virginia, 1607; B. The thirteen British colonies (1607-1773): Virginia, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Georgia. C. The reasons for the immigrants to come to North America: 1. opportunity: (a) the English nobles: establish great new estates; (b) carpenters, bakers, tailors, and other skilled workmen: find jobs; \(c\) the poor and the homeless: to live a better life; 2. Freedom: religious and political freedom: The Pilgrims: 1620, 201: Mayflower; the Plymouth Colony; artisans and peasants; The Thanksgiving celebration; The Puritans: wealthy, well-educated gentlemen; purify the Church of England; From March 1630 to 1643, some 200 ships transported over 20, 000 Englishmen to the Massachusetts Bay colony. Major view: high position and achievements as signs of "eternal grace", favor of God; respect for learning; 3. The major features helping to form the American character: representative form of government, rule of law, respect for individual rights, religious tolerance, and a strong spirit of individual enterprise. III. The War of Independence A. The reasons: (a) economic reasons: 1. The policy of the British government was to bring the development of the economy in North America under its own control and to collect more taxes. 2. The British government put a tax on the molasses imported from the West Indies which could be made into rum (a kind of alcohol) for exportation. 3. In order to finance a large army stationed in America, the British government put into effect the Stamp Tax, collecting more money from the colonies to support the army, and requiring the colonies to provide the troops with fuel, light, bedding and other goods. 4. to sell tea at a lower price in the colonies, which hit hard the local business. (b) political reason: "No taxation without representation", that is, without their representatives taking part in decision-making, they had no obligation to pay taxes. B. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 (Explanation p293 textbook); C. The First Continental Congress in September 1774 in Philadelphia: D. The battles (shots) in Lexington and Concord (on April 19, 1775): Paul Revere E. The Second Continental Congress: founded the Army and the Navy: appointed a committee to draft the Declaration of Independence; drafted the Articles of Confederation in 1777; F. The Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776: Thomas Jefferson; "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness...."; John Locke; G. A great victory for the colonies: the battles at Trenton, New Jersey on Christmas Day of 1776. H. The turning point in the War of Independence: the victory over the British troops at Saratoga in Northern New York, leading directly to an alliance between the U.S. and France. I. The Treaty of Paris in September, 1783: British recognition of the independence of the United States; J. The significance of the American War of Independence: (a) smashing the fetters of British colonial rule, the American people gained independence, which gave capitalism a chance for freer development; (b) international influence: the colonies in Spanish America rose up one after another to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Ⅳ. A New Form of Government * There were two constitutions in American history: The Articles of Confederation in 1781 and the U.S. Constitution drafted in 1787 and officially ratified on March 4, 1789. A. The Articles of Confederation: 1781: (a) provided no king; decided to have a republic; it was revolutionary; (b) while a central government was created, the emphasis was still on state powers; \(c\) it was a written constitution of the United States; the first written one at that time, (d) Its weaknesses: difficult to carry on the business of the government without someone's doing the executive's job; besides, Congress was too large a body to function as government; Congress had no power to raise taxes. B. The Constitutional Convention: May to September 17, 1787. The "Great Compromise": giving each state an equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House of Representatives reflect the size of the state's population. The final document was put before the convention on September 17 and was signed by 39 of the 42 delegates who attended the convention that day. C. The ratification of the constitution: (a) The Federalists: and the federalist papers; the Publius: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay (b) the Anti-Federalists: Thomas Jefferson; \(c\) Bill of Rights: proposed by James Madison and ratified in 1791. (d) the first ten amendments of the US Constitution: It guarantees freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of the assembly and petition, freedom from unreasonable searches, right to jury trial, right to due process of law and other legal rights. D. the first general election was held towards the end of 1788, and the first Congress met on April 6, 1789; Sixty-nine (69) electors all voted to choose George Washington as the President while John Adams was elected Vice President by a vote of 34. On the 30th of April, Washington took oath of office in New York which housed the government. The government moved to Philadelphia in 1790. Ⅴ. The War of 1812 A. The war between the United States and Britain lasted two years from 1812 to 1814. B. The causes of the war: (a) The British was annoyed at the American trade with France during the Anglo-French war (b) The Americans resented the British practice of impressing or forcibly removing seamen from ships on grounds that they were British subjects. \(c\) The United States wanted a territorial expansion into Canada or Spanish Florida, which harmed the British interests. (The Louisiana Purchase in 1803) C. The impact of the war on the development of the United States: (a) People realized the importance of a strong national government. (b) The war strengthened the feeling of national unity and patriotism. \(c\) The Americans turned their attention to the development of western part of the continent. (The Westward Movement) (d) Both countries realized that their disputes had to be solved through negotiation. V. Territorial Expansion and Westward Movement A. Territorial expansion (a) The seizure of the Old Northwest from Britain through the 13 years of Indian wars (Present-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) and forcing Spain to open the Mississippi River. (b) The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 for only 15 million dollars; \(c\) led by Andrew Jackson, forcing Spain to cede Florida and the Gulf Coast; (d) Texas, added to the Union in 1845; (e) The War with Mexico (1846-1848); forced Mexico to agree to give California and New Mexico (now the states of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming) to the United States. (f) The Gadsden Purchase in 1583, another 30,000 square miles of Mexican land (now the southern part of Arizona and New Mexico) was added to the territory of the United States. B. The Manifest Destiny (Explanation) (a) First proposed by John L. O'Sullivan: Three implications, (b) The inevitability of the founding of the United States of America; \(c\) the legitimacy of the expansion of American Territory; (d) the spread of democracy being the task of American people who were chosen to do the Lord's work. VI. The American Civil War A. The causes: (a) The conflicts of interests between the northern industrial economy and the southern plantation economy, (b) the issue of slavery; B. The election of Abraham Lincoln to be the 16th President of United States became the starting point of the Civil War. C. The war lasted four years from April 12, 1861 to April 9, 1865. D. Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863 "that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." E. The Thirteen Amendment, which banned slavery, was added to the Constitution in December, 1865. VII. Rapid Growth of Capitalism after the Civil War A. The reasons for the rapid development: (a) a stable political environment, (b) enough labor supply because of a large number of free laborers: the black slaves and waves of immigrants from \(c\) the role of science and invention; (d) trade protection, and (e) rich natural resources. B. The characteristics: high production and capital concentration; C. The renowned figures: John Rockefeller, J. P Morgan, and du Pont. Chapter sixteen American History (II) (1900-1945) I. Economic Development A. In 1900 the United States produced 245 million tons of coal, ranking first in the world, with Britain second with 229 million tons. B. Three features in the growth of the American economy: (a) a growth of industrial and financial mergers: industrialization, together with a professional managerial class; (b) a mushroom growth of cities: urbanization; \(c\) a rapid development of new technology: electricity, steam, automobile, the radio, planes, etc. (a nation on the wheels) Ⅱ. Progressivism A. The Muckrakers: a group of reform-minded journalists, made investigations and exposed various dark sides of the seemingly prosperous society. B. The Progressive Movement: a movement demanding government regulation of the economy and social conditions. It was a number of diverse efforts at political, social, and economic reforms. (a) In the political area, there were demands for reforming the city and state governments, and ending corruption which was evident in the Gilded Age. (b) In the economic area, there was an attempt to regulate big business to prevent price-fixing and control of the market. \(c\) In the social area, the demands were improved living conditions for the poor in cities, the banning of child labor, work hour limit for women workers, and industrial accident insurance. C. Pushed by the Progressive Movement, Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson contributed to the government regulation of economic development and initiated changes from the 19th century tradition of laissez faire. D. Theodore Roosevelt's contributions: (a) the withdrawal of public land as forest reserves and initiation of large-scale projects such as Roosevelt Dam in Arizona. (b) the active use of the Sherman Antitrust Act to stop monopolies of business mergers; \(c\) the adoption of the Hepburn Act of 1906 to regulate railroad prices and do away with rebates. E. Woodrow Wilson's contribution: New Freedom (a) a reduction of tariffs by 10%; (b) the passage of the Federal Reserve Act which decentralized the banking system; \(c\) regulation of trusts, (d) making available to farmers loans at low rates, (e) 8-hour workday for railroad workers and better treatment of seamen; (f) adoption of an income tax; (g) adoption of the 19th amendment of voting right for women in 1920, III. World War I and the United States A. The cause: the result of fierce struggle between two imperialists power groups for colonies, markets, and spheres of influence, and of an intense arms control. B. The United States claimed to take a neutral stance but it was impartial neither in action nor in thought. It pursued a policy of pro-Ally partiality. C. The reason for the United States to participate in the war: (a) Germany used submarines to attack the American business ships, which harmed American interest; (b) Germany was trying to get Mexico into the war against the United States, promising it the return of lost territory of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the United States government declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917. \(c\) The defeat of Britain and France in the war would harm the US business interests, for the US business community had loaned large sums of money and sold large amounts of war material to Britain and France. D. The end of the war: on November 11, 1918. E. The Peace Conference, or the Paris Conference, (a) was actually a conference of division of colonies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire and the grabbing of as much as possible from the defeated nations. (b) The Conference was dominated by the Big Four (the United States, Britain, France, and Italy). \(c\) President Wilson's Fourteen Points and the proposal of the establishment of the League of Nations: trying to advance American interests, (d) the emergence of the Versailles Treaty System in Europe; (e) November 12th, 1921: The Washington Conference: The Washington System in Asia; IV. The United States in the 1920s A. a period of material success and spiritual frustration; B. The government gave direct or indirect help to industry and business and showed little interest in regulation or control. A friendly government, tariff protection (high import taxes to protect domestic production), favorable tax rates and absence of restrictions. A. Three examples of the political intolerance during the early 1920s: (1) The Red Scare in 1919 and 1920: (a) The causes: a highly aggressive and intolerant nationalism; (b) the October Revolution in Russia in 1917; \(c\) the quick spread of communist ideas in Europe and some advocacy in the US; (d) the whipping up of a senseless excitement about the danger of communism; (e) On November 7, 1919 and January 2, 1920, the Justice Department launched two waves of mass arrests; (f) Over 4,000 suspected Communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the US. (2) The death sentence of Sacco and Vanzetti. (3) The revival and growth of the Ku Klux Klan. V. The Great Depression and the New Deal A. Serious weaknesses in the American economy in the 1920s: (a) no regulation or control over various kinds of investment companies; (b) The banking system lacked stability. \(c\) stock market speculation and over-expansion of credit; B. The Black Thursday: the crash of the stock market in New York on Oct. 24, 1929. C. The rise of Franklin D. Roosevelt; promising the New Deal, D. The immediate problem Roosevelt faced: to prevent the collapse of American economic and political system; (in his inaugural address) "the only fear we have to fear is fear itself, nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts that convert retreat to advance." E. The contents of the New Deal: (a) establishment and strengthening of government regulation and control of banking, credit, and currency system; (b) federal government management of relief and establishment of social security systems; \(c\) stimulation of the recovery of industry and agriculture; (d) formulation and implementation of federal labor laws to raise the role of labor in the relations of production, (e) improvement of the situation of minorities and members of certain religious groups; F. The aim of these measures, as President Roosevelt put it, was to "save American democracy". VI. World War II and the United States A. The cause of WWII: the result of the struggle for power between great powers for control of the world and military expansion of the countries of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and militarist Japan. B. This struggle was worsened by the world economic crisis: Japanese invasion of China on July 7, 1937, the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the Pearl Harbor Incident on December 7, 1941. C. Three neutrality acts passed by US Congress, D. The reason for the US to participate in WWII: (a) the direct reason: the Pearl Harbor Incident on December 7, 1941. (b) the fall of France in June 1940 and the gradual exhaustion of Britain, E. American wartime objectives: the total destruction of the Axis Powers and the establishment of a world order after unconditional victory in accord with American ideals and interests; F. The road to the realization of these objectives was to coordination of American, Britain, and Soviet efforts. G Two guiding principles behind US diplomatic efforts: (a) to win the war; (b) to establish a postwar political structure in accord with American interest and to prevent the Soviet Union from over-expansion. H. American policy towards Britain: Three issues: (a) the formation of a grand strategy; concentrate resources to defeat Germany; (b) policy towards the Soviet Union: to give the Soviet Union whatever support they could offer to keep it in war; \(c\) the status of former colonies after the war, I. The main considerations in American policy towards the Soviet Union: (a) to keep the Soviet Union in war; (b) to get the Soviet Union into war against Japan; \(c\) to influence Soviet foreign policy; J. Three most important conferences during WWII (a) the Tehran Conference in November 1943: the decision of Overlord; (b) the Yalta Conference in Feb. 1945; \(c\) the Potsdam Conference during July and August, 1945, K. Overlord: Or Operation Overlord: At the Teheran Conference held from Nov. 29 to Dec. 2, 1943, attended by Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, Britain and the United States agreed to open a second front in France in May, 1944. The campaign was codenamed Overlord. Later, Roosevelt named General Eisenhower the supreme commander of Overlord. D-Day: on June 6th, 1944 in World War II, the day when the allies landed in France to begin the spread of their forces through Europe, under the command of General Eisenhower. Chapter seventeen American History (III) (1900-1945) I. The Origins of the Cold War: A. The disagreement and conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union: Basically from their separate concepts of postwar world order; B. The United States: to establish American leadership in the