英语词汇学复习-题

Keytochapter11.Whatisaword?1.Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction.2.Inwhatwayarewordsrelatedtovocabulary?Vocabularyreferstothesumtotalofallthewordsinalanguage.Inotherwords,vocabularyiscomposedofwordsandwordsmakeupvocabulary.Ifwecomparevocabularytoafamily,wordsarefamilymembers.3.Illustratetherelationshipbetweensoundandmeaningwithexamples.Soundisthephysicalaspectofawordandmeaningiswhatthesoundrefersto.Soundandmeaningarenotintrinsicallyrelatedandtheircollectionisarbitraryandconventional.Forexample,tree/tri:/means树inEnglishbecausetheEnglish-speakingpeoplehaveagreedtodosojustasChinesepeopleuse/shù/(树)torefertothesamething.Thisexplainswhypeopleofdifferentlanguagesusedifferentsoundstoexpressthesameconcept.However,inthesamelanguages,thesamesoundcandenotedifferentmeanings,e.g./rait/canmeanright,rite,andwrite.4.EnumeratethecausesforthedifferencesbetweensoundandformofenglishwordsTherearegenerallyfourmajorcausesofthedifferencesbetweensoundandform.⑴TherearemorephonemesthanlettersinEnglish,sothereisnowaytouseonelettertorepresentonephoneme.⑵Thestabilizationofspellingbyprinting,whichbreaksthesynchronizedchangeofsoundandspelling.⑶Influenceoftheworkofscribes,whodeliberatelychangedthespellingofwordsand⑷borrowing,whichintroducesmanywordswhichareagainstEnglishrulesofpronunciationandspelling.5.GiveexamplestoshowtheinfluenceofearlyscribesonenglishspellingEarlyscribeschangedthespellingofmanywordswhilecopyingthingsforothersbecausetheoriginalspellingformsincursivewritingweredifficultforpeopletorecognize,suchassum,cum,wuman,munkandsoon.Later,theletteruwithverticallineswasreplacedwitho,resultinginthecurrentspellingformslikesome,come,woman,monk.Thechangedspellingformsaremoredistinguishabletoreaders.6.WhatarethecharacteristicsofbasicwordstockWordsofthebasicwordstockformthecommoncoreoftheEnglishlanguage.Theyarethewordsessentialtonativespeakers’dailycommunication.Suchwordsarecharacterizedbyallnationalcharacter,stability,polysemy,productivityandcollocability.7.choosethestandardmeaningformfromthelistontherighttomatcheachoftheslangwordsontheleftAtartloosewomanb.blokefellowc.gatpistold.swellgreate.chickencowardF.bluefightg.smokypolicehfulldrunki.damewomanj.beavergirl8.giventhemodernequivalentsforthefollowingarchaicwordshaply=perhapsalbeit=althoughmethinks=itseemstomeeke=alsobade=bidsmooth=truthmorn=morningtroth=pledgeere=beforequoth=saidhallowed=holybillow=wave/thesea9.ExplainneologismswithexamplesNeologismsrefertonewly-coinedwordsoroldwordswithnewmeanings.Forexample,euro(欧元),e-book(电子),SARS(非典),netizen(网民),arenewly-coinedwords.Wordslikemouse(鼠标),web(网络),spaceshuttle(航天飞机)etc.areoldwordswhichhaveacquirednewmeanings.10.WhatisthefundamentaldifferencebetweencontentandfunctionalwordsBynotion,wordsfallintocontentwordsandfunctionalwords.Contentwordsincludenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsandnumerals,whichhaveclearnotions;whereasfunctionalwordsarevoidofnotionsbutaremainlyusedtoconnectcontentwordsintosentences.Contentwordsarenumerousandchangingallthetime,whilefunctionalwordsaresmallinnumberandstable.Butfunctionalwordshavemuchhigherfrequencyinusethancontentwords.11.Howdoyouaccountfortheroleofnativewordsinenglishinrelationtoloanwords?NativewordsformasmallportionoftheEnglishvocabulary,buttheymakeupthemainstreamofthebasicword-stockwhichbelongstothecommoncoreoftheEnglishlanguage.Comparedwithmostloan-words,nativewordsaremostlyessentialtonativespeakers’dailycommunicationandenjoyamuchhigherfrequencyinactualuse.12.Categorizethefollowingborrowedwordsintodenizens,alienstranslationloansandsemanticloansDenizensAliensTranslationloansSemanticloanskettleconfrerechopsticksdreamdiepropatriablackhumourskirtparvenulongtimenoseewallWunderkindtyphoonhusbandMikadoKeytochapter21.WhyshouldstudentsofenglishlexicologystudytheIn-Europeanlanguagefamily?TheIndo-EuropeLanguageFamilyisoneofthemostimportantlanguagefamiliesintheworld.ItismadeupofthelanguagesofEurope,theNearEastandIndia.EnglishbelongstothisfamilyandtheothermembersoftheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyhavedifferentdegreesofinfluenceonEnglishvocabulary.AknowledgeoftheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilywillhelpusunderstandEnglishwordsbetterandusethemmoreappropriately.2.makeatreediagramtoshowthefamilyrelationsofthemodernlanguagegivenbelow3.Whatarethefundamentaldifferencesbetweenthevocabulariesofthe3periodsofdevelopment?Doyouthinkwecandividethehistoricaldevelopmentinotherways?Defendyourargument.Thevocabulariesofthethreeperiodsdiffergreatlyfromoneanther.OldEnglishhas(1)asmallvocabulary(50000—60000),(2)asmallnumberofborrowingsfromLatinandScandinavianonlyand(3)thewordsfullofendings.MiddleEnglishhas(1)acomparativelylargevocabulary,(2)atremendousnumberofforeignwordsfromFrenchandLatinand(3)wordendingsleveled.ModernEnglishhas(1)ahugeandheterogeneousvocabulary,(2)tremendousborrowingsand(3)wordswithlostendings.Yes,wecandividethedevelopmentsinotherways,forexample,OldEnglishperiodcanbecalledAnglo-Saxonperiod.AndMiddleEnglishmightstartfrom1066,thetimeofNormanConquest.Butindoingso,thelogicalcontinuationoftheethreephasesoftheoriginaldivisionislost.4.whatcharacteristicsofenglishmaketheenglishlanguageheterogeneous?itisreceptivityandadaptabilityoftheEnglishlanguagethatmakeitpossibleforEnglishtoborrowheavilyfromothermajorlanguagesoftheworld,sothattheEnglishvocabularyeventuallyhasbecomeheterogeneous.5.Accountforthepopularityofenglishinthepresentworldfromalinguisticperspective.ThepopularityofEnglishliesinthefactthatEnglishisreadytoborrowfromotherlanguagesandtoadaptitselftonewsituationsandnewdevelopments,thatithasacceptedelementsfromallothermajorlanguagesandthatithassimplereflectionandarelativelyfixedwordorder.Allthesemakethelanguagecomparativelyeasytolearnandtouse.6coursehumaneventsnecessarypeopledissolvepoliticalconnectedassumepowersseparateequalstationnatureentitledecentrespectopinionsrequiresdeclarecausesimpelseparationFromthewordspickedout,wecanseethatmostofthecontentwordsareeitherofGreekorLatinorigin.Whatweleftaremostlyfunctionalwords.ThisshowsthatGreekandLatinplayaveryimportantpartintheEnglishvocabulary.7.Giveabriefaccountofthe4phasesofLatinborrowingwith2or3examplesforeachperiod.Latinborrowingcanbedividedintofourphase:(1)Pre-Anglo-Saxonperiod,(2)OldEnglishperiod,(3)middleEnglishperiodand(4)ModernEnglishperiod.Borrowingsinthefirstperiodaremainlycommonwordssuchaswall,wine,kettleandsoon;Wordsborrowedinthesecondperiodaremainlyreligioustermssuchascandle,nun,church;thethirdperiodsawwordborrowedoftenviaFrenchsuchasfrustrate,history,infancyandsoonandintheforthperiodWordsborrowedfromLatinareusuallyabstractformaltermslikestatus,nucleus,minimum.8.tellthedifferenceelementsthatmakeupthefollowinghybrids.eventful[Latin+English]hydroplane[Greek+LatinFalsehood[Latin+English]pacifist[Latin+Greek]Saxophone[German+Greek]heirloom[French+English]Josshouse[Portuguese+English]television[Greek+Latin]9.putthefollowingFrenchloanwordinto2groups,onebeingearlyborrowingsandtheotherlateones.amateur(late)finace(late)Empire(late)peace(early)Courage(early)garage(late)Judgement(early)chair(early)Chaise(late)grace(early)Servant(early)routine(late)Jealous(early)savate(late)Genre(late)gender(early)Debut(late)morale(late)State(early)chez(late)Ballet(late)10.CommentonJespersen'sremarkonScandinavianelementinenglish"AnenglishmancannotthriveorbeillordiewithoutScandinavianwords,theyaretothelanguagewhatbreadandeggsaretothedailyfare.Jespersen’scommentrevealstheimportanceofScandinavianwordsinEnglish.Justaspeoplecannotlivewithoutbreadandeggs,soEnglishlanguagecannotoperateproperlywithoutScandinavianwords.11.MatchtheItalianmusicaltermswiththeproperdefinitionsallegrof.轻快Altoi.女低音Andantej行板Crescendob.渐强Diminuendog.渐弱Fortee.强Largod.缓慢Pianoh.轻Pianofortea.轻转慢Sopranoc.女高音12.Lookupthesewordsinadictionarytodeterminethelanguagefromwhicheachhasbeenborrowedcherub（Hebrew）chipmunk(AmericanIndian)Chocolate(Mexican)coolie(Hindi)Cotton(Arabic)jubilee(Greek)Lasso(Spanish)loot(Hindi)Sabbath(Hebrew)shampoo(Hindi)Snorkel(German)ttamale(Mexican)Tepee(American)tulip(Turkish)Voodoo(African)kibitz(German)Wok(Chinese)sauerbraten(German)13.Hereisamenuofloanwordsfromvarioussources.Chooseawordtofillineachspace.a.alligatorb.Lococ.rodeod..Bonanzae.igloof.Blitzkriegg.wigwamh.Canoei.hurricanej.Boomerangk.poncho14.Describethecharacteristicsofcontemporaryvocabularythecharacteristicsofthecontemporaryvocabularycanbesummarizedasfollows:(1)thevocabularyishugeinsizeandheterogeneous;(2)ithastremendousborrowingsfromallothermajorlanguagesoftheworld;(3)thewordshavelosttheirendings;(4)itisgrowingswiftlybymeansofword-formationbecauseofthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,social,economicandpoliticalchangesandinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguages.15.Whatarethemajormodesofvocabularydevelopmentincontemporaryenglish?themajormodesofvocabularydevelopmentofcontemporaryarecreation,thatisbymeansofword-formation;semanticchange,addingnewmeaningstooldwords;borrowingwordsfromotherlanguageandrevivalofold-fashionedwords,whichhasainsignificantrole.Keytochapter31.writethetermsintheblanksaccordingtothedefinitionsa.morphemeb.allomorphc.boundmorphemed.freemorphemee.affixf.inflectionalaffixg.derivationalaffixh.rooti.stemj.base2.Whatisthedifferencebetweengrammaticalandlexicalmorphemes,andinflectionalandderivationalmorphemes.giveexamplestoillustratetheirrelationshipsInflectionalmorphemesarethesuffixesaddedtotheendofwordstodenotegrammaticalconceptssuchas–s(-es),-ed,-ingand–est(toshowsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs)whereasderivationalmorphemesareprefixesandsuffixesaddedtowordstoformnewwordssuchaspre-,dis-,un-,-tion,-er,-nessandsoon.Grammaticalmorphemesarethoseusedtoshowgrammaticalconcepts,includinginflectionalsuffixesasmentionedaboveandfunctionalwords(prepositions,pronouns,articles,auxiliaryverbs),forexample,but,the,doandWas;lexicalmorphemesarederivationalaffixesincludingbothprefixesandsuffixes3.Analysethewordsintermsofroot,stem,baseIndividualisticindividualist+ic[stem,base]individual+ist[stem,base]individu+al[stem,base]in+dividu[root,stem,base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem,base]desir+able[root,stem,base]4.OrganizethefollowingtermsinatreediagramtoshowtheirlogicalrelationshipsSHAPE\*MERGEFORMATKeytochapter4EnumeratethethreeimportantmeansofwordformationandexplaintheirrespectiveroleintheexpansionofEnglishvocabulary.Thethreemeansofwordformationareaffixation,whichcreates30%to40%ofthetotalnumberofnewwords;compounding,whichbrings28%to30%ofallthenewwords;andconversion,whichprovidesEnglishwith26%ofthenewwords.Affixation1.Whatisaffixation?Whatisitsalternativename?Affixation,alsocalledderivation,istheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaffixestostems.AffixationIncludesprefixationandsuffixationaccordingtothetypesofAffixesusedtoformsnewwords.2.Whatisthedifferencebetweenprefixationandsuffixation?Prefixationistocreatenewwordsbyaddingprefixestobasewhilesuffixationmakesnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobase.3.Whatarethecharacteristicsofprefixesandsuffixes?Generallyspeaking,prefixesdonotchangepartofspeechofbasebutonlymodifytheirmeaningwhereassuffixesdochangepartofspeechbutseldommodifythemeaningofbases.4.Whatisthebestwaytoclassifyprefixes?Why?Thebestwaytoclassifyprefixesisonthebasisofmeaningbecauseprefixesonlychangethemeaningofbasesingeneral.5.Formnegativeswitheachoffollowingwordsbyusingoneoftheseprefixesdis~,il~.im~,in~,ir~,non~,un~,non-smokerincapableimpracticaldisobeyinsecurityirrelevantimmatureinability/disabilityunofficiallyunwillingnessillegaldisagreementillogicaldisloyalinconvenientnon-athletic6.hardenhorrifymodernizememorizefalsifyapologizedeepenglorifysterilizelengthenintensifybeautifyfattensympathizea.apologizeb.beautifyc.lengtheningd.sympathizede.tofattenf.falsify/hardeng.memorizingh.Sterilize7.a.employeeb.politicianc.participantd.waitresse.conductorf.teacherg.pianisth.examinee/examiner8.trans-=across:transcontinental,trans-worldmono-=one:monorail,monoculturesuper-=over,above:superstructure,supernaturalauto-=self:autobiography,automobilesub-=bad,badly:malpractice,malnutritionmini-=little,small:minicrisis,miniwarpre-=before:prehistorical,preelectionex-=former:ex-teacher,ex-filmerCompounding1.Whyarethecriteriabywhichtodifferentiatecompoundsfromfreephrases?Whatdoyouthinkofthesecriteria?Thethreecriteriaare(1)stresspattern,thatis,stressinacompoundfallsonthefirstelementbutonthesecondinafreephrase,e.g.'--(compound),-'-(freephrase);(2)meaning,thatis,themeaningsofacompoundisusuallynotthecombinationofthemeaningofthecomponentparts,butthefreephraseis,e.g.hotline(compound:busyline),hotpotato(freephrase:potatowhichishot);(3)grammaticalunity,thatis,thedifferentelementsformagrammaticalunit,whichdoesnotallowinternalchange,e.g.easychair(compound:aspecialarmchair),easierchair(freephrase:alesseasychair).However,everyrulehasexpectations.Thesameistrueofthecriteria.Threeareexamplesagainsteachofthethreerules.2.heartbeat[S+V]brainwashing[V+O]movie-goer[place+V.-er]bakingpowder[adv+n.]far-reaching[Adv+v.-ing]dog-tired[adv+adj]lion-hearted[adv+n.-ed]love-sick[adv+adj]boyfriend[S+complement]peace-loving[V+O]snapdecision[V+O]easychair[adj+n]on-coming[adv+v]tax-free[adv+adj]light-blue[adj+adj]goings-on[V+adv]Whereasconversationisthederivationofnewwordsbyaddingzeroaffixes,suchassingle(adj.)→single(v.）.3.Whataretheusualmethodstoformcompoundwords?Giveexamples.Therearetwowaystoformverbcompounds.Forexample,firstname(v.fromfirstname)andhoneymoon(v.fromhoneymoon)arewordscreatedbymeansofconversion:wordssuchasproofread(v.fromproofreading)andchain-smoke(v.fromchainsmoker)areformedbymeansofbackformation.4.well-bred有教养的well-behaved守规矩的culture-bound含文化的homebound回家的needlework针织品homework家庭作业praiseworthy值得扬的respectworthy值得尊敬的bar-woman吧女sportswoman女运动员nationwide全国的college-wide全校的clear-minded头脑清晰的strong-minded意志坚强的military-style军事风格的newstyle新款self-control自制self-respect自尊budget-related有预算的politics-related与政治相关的water-proof防水fire-proof防火once-fashionable曾经流行的once-powerful曾经强大的news-film新闻片news-letter时事通讯mock-attack演习mock-sadness假悲伤sister-in-law嫂/弟媳妇father-in-law岳父/公公home-baked自家烤的home-produced自制的half-way半途的/半路的half-done半生不熟的ever-lasting永久的ever-green常青的age-conscious年龄敏感的status-conscious身份敏感的campus-based以校园为基地的market-based基于市场的Conversion1.Whatisconversion?Whatdoyouthinkofthealternativesfunctionalshiftandzero-derivation?Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyturningwordsofonepartofspeechtothoseofanotherpartofspeech,Thetermfunctionalshiftrevealstheactualfunctionofconversion,i.e.changeofthefunctionsofwords.thetermzero-derivationapproachesconversionfromtheperspectiveofderivationbecauseitisawayofderivingnewwordsbyaddingzeroaffixes,hencezeroderivation.2.Inwhatwayisconversiondifferentfromsuffixation?Althoughbotharecalledderivation,suffixationisthederivationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases,suchassimple(adj.)→simplify（v.)3whatcausesofwordsaremostfrequentlyconverted?Theclassesmostfrequentlyinvolvedinconversationarenounsandverbs.4inwhatwayareverbsconvertedfromnounssemanticallyrelatedtooriginalnounsandviceversa?Verbsconvertedtonounsusuallyarerelatedtotheoriginalverbsinsixdifferentways.Thenewnounsconvertedfromverbsreferto（1）stateofmindorsensation,e.g.desire(stateofdesiring);(2)eventoractivity,e.g.swim(theactivityofswimming);(3)resultoftheaction,e.g.buy(theresultofbuying);(4)doeroftheaction,e.g.bore(thepersonwhombores);(5)toolorinstrument,e,g,paper(doingsomethingwithpaper)and(6)place,e.g.turn(theplaceofturning).Nounsconvertedtoverbsaregenerallyrelatedtotheoriginalnounsinseverdifferentways.Thenewverbsusuallymean(1)toputinoronthenoun,e.g.peel(toremovethepeelfrom);(4)todowiththenoun,e.g.Shoulder(todosomethingwithshoulder);(5)tobeoractasthenoun,e.g.tutor(tobethetutor);(6)tomakeorchangeintothenoun,e.g.cash(7)tosendorgobythenoun,e.g.ship(tosendbyship).5.ExplainpartialconversionandfullconversionwithexamplesWhenadjectivesareconvertedintonouns,somearecompletelychanged,thusknownasfullconversation,andothersarepartiallychanged,thusknownaspartialconversion.Adjectiveswhicharefullyconvertedcanachieveafullnounstatus,i.e.havingallthecharacteristicsofnouns.Thatmeanstheycantakea/anshorts,finals.Adjectiveswhicharepartiallyconvertedstillkeepadjectivefeatures.Theyshouldalwaysbeusedwiththe,andtheycannottake-s/-estoshowpluralforms.Moreover,thewordscanhavecomparativeorsuperlativedegrees:thepoor,thepoorer,theyoung,theveryunfortunate.6.Whatchangesareoccasionallyinvolvedintheprocessofconversion?Thechangesoccasionallyinvolvedare(1)changeofspellingaccompaniedbypronunciation,e.G.Life/laIf/→live/liv/,breath/breɚ/→breathe/bri:ỏ/andblood/blʌd/→bleed/bli:d/;(2)changeofpronunciationandstress,e.g.use.n/ju:s/→usev./ju:z/andpermitn./'p:mit/→v./p'mit/andsoon.7.a.stomach[n.→v.]b.Room[n.→v.]c.wolf[n→v]d.come/go[v→n]e.familiar[a→n]f.innocent[a→n]g.flat[a→n]h.ah/ouch[int→v]i.warm[a→n]j.has-been/might-have-been[finitev→n]k.Hamlet[propern→v]l.buy[v→n]m.smooth[a→v]Blendingmotelmotor+hotel)汽车旅馆humint(human+intelligence)情报advertisetics(advertisement+statistics)广告统计学psywarrior(psychologicalwarrior)心理战专家hoverport(hovercraft+port气垫船码头chunnel(channel+tunnel)海峡隧道hi-fi(high+fidelity)高保真音响cinemactress(cinema+actress)电影演员Clippingcopter(helicopter)frontclippingdorm(dormitory)backclippinglab(laboratory)backclippingprefab(prefabricatedhouse)phraseclippinggas(gasoline)backclippingprof(professor)backclippingscope(telescope)frontclippingchamp(champion)backclippingsarge(sergeant)backclippingmike(microphone)backclippingad(advertisement)backclippingtec(detective)rontandbackclippingAcronymy1.bothinitialismsandacronymsareformedtoacertainextentfrominitialletters.Isthereanydifferencebetweenthem?IllustrateyourpointwithexamplesYes,thereisadifferencebetweenthem.Thedifferenceliesintheformationandpronunciation.Initialismsareformationspronouncedletterbyletter,e.g.UFO(unidentifiedflyingobject),BBC(BritishBroadcastingCorporation),VIP(veryimportantperson)andacronymsareformedtoconformtotheruleofspellingandpronunciation,thatis,thewordslookandsoundlikeordinarywords,e.g.AIDS/eidz/(acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome),MAD(mutuallyassureddestruction),radar(radiodetectingandranging).2.whatdotheshortformsstandfor?kg=kilogramft=footcf=confercm=centimeter$=dollaribid=ibideetc.=etceteraVIP=veryimportantpersonOPEC=OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountriesTOEFL=testofEnglishasaforeignlanguage3.a.SALTb.radarc.AIDSd.BASICe.Laserf.WHOg.sonarh.G-manBackformation1.Bothback-formationandback-clippingarewaysofmakingwordsbyremovingtheendingsofwords.Howyouaccountforcoexistenceofthe2?canyouillustratethedifference?Itistruethatbotharemeansofmakingnewwordsbyremovingtheendpartofthewords.Buttheyhavedifferences.Foraback-formedword,whatisremovedisthesupposedsuffix,e.g.auth------author,donate------donation,loaf-----loafer,theforms–-or,--ion,--ercoincidewiththetheirsuffixes.Forbackclipping,however,whatisremovedisusuallydifferentfromtheexistingsuffixes,e.g.ad------advertisement,gas-------gasoline,exam------examination,etc.2.Civetheoriginalwordsfromwhichthefollowingwordsareback-formedLase(laser)escalate(escalator)Babysit(babysitter)peeve(peevish)Orate(orator)commute(commuter)Communizationofpropernamesa.Tantalize-------Tantalus:toteaseortormentbykeepingsth.wantedoutofreachb.bArgus-eyed--------Argus:tobeextremelywatchfula.narcissim--------Narcissus:excessiveadmirationofoneselforone’sappearanceb.sabotage-------Sabots:(1)todestroyordamagedeliberately(2)deliberatedamageordestructione.martinet--------Martinet:strict/stern(military)trainerf.yahoo-------Yahoo:aloutorruffiang.Shylock--------Shylock:aruthlessmoneylenderh.hovering-------Hoover:cleaningbyusingavacuumcleanerKeytoChapter51.Whatisreference?Referenceistheconnectionbetweenthewordformandwhattheformreferstointheworld.(or:Referenceistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.)2.Whatisconcept?Conceptisanotionoridea,formedinthemindasaresultofcognition,whichreflectstheobjectiveworld.3.Whatissense?Thesenseofawordshowsitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherwordsinthelanguage.Itisoftenusedtosubstitutemeaning.4.Whatismotivation?Doesthistheorycontradictthetheoryof"arbitrariness"and"conventionality'concerningtherelationshipbetweenlinguisticsymbolsandtheirsenses?Motivationexplainstherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning,orthelogicalreasonwhyacertainwordhasacertainmeaning.Asmentionedearlier,therelationshipbetweensoundandmeaningisarbitraryandconventional.Motivationseemstocontradictthetheory.Theansweris“yesandno”.By“yes”,wemeanallthemono-morphemicwordsinalanguagearenon-motivatedexceptafewonomatopoeicwordswhichimitatethenaturalsoundsornoises.By“no”,wemeanmanymulti-morphemicwordsaremotivated,forinmanycasesthemeaningofthewholewordisthecombinationofthemorphemes.Themorphemicstructureexplainsthemeaning.5.Whatarethe4typesofmotivation?ExplainthemwithexamplesThefourtypesofmotivationareonomatopoeicmotivation,morphologicalmotivation,semanticmotivationandetymologicalmotivation.Onomatopoeicmotivationexplainsonomatopoeicwordswhosemeaningisbasedonthepronunciationofthewordssuchasmiaow,thump,peng,etc.;morphologicalmotivationexplainsthewordswhosemorphologicalstructurethrowslightontheirmeaning,suchasprofiteer(profit+eer),darkroom(dark+room),deconstruction(de+construct+ion),etc.;semanticmotivationexplainsthefigurativemeaningofwordswhoseliteralmeaningsuggeststhefigurativemeaningsuchasthetongueoffire,themouthoftheriver,thefaceoftheearth;etymologicalmotivationexplainsthewordswhosemeaningiscloselyrelatedtotheiroriginssuchasbanting(therapyforkeepingslimbygoingonadietdiscoveredbyDoctorBanting)andBrille(languageusedbytheblindcreatedbyBrille).6.apes-gibberbirds-sing/twittercattle-lowcrickets-chirpdoves-coofoxes-yelpgeese-gabblesheep-bleatwolves-howlmonkeys-chatterpigs-grunthyenas-laughturkeys-gobbleswans-cry7.Whatisthedifferencebetweengrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning?Grammaticalmeaningreferstothepartofmeaningwhichshowsgrammaticalrelationshipsuchaspartofspeechofwords,pluralformsofnouns,tenseofverbs,etc.andlexicalmeaningincludesalltherestofthemeaningsofawordapartfromthegrammaticalmeaning,i.e.conceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning.8.Whatarethecharacteristicsofconceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning?Conceptualmeaningisfundamental,universalandstablewhereasassociativemeaningissecondary,contextual,open-endedorindeterminate,thuschanging.9.Whatconnotationsdoyouthinkwewordatomicmighthaveforeachofthefollowingpeople?a.Ascientistworkinginaprojecttodevelopindustrialusesfornuclearpowermighthaveallthepositiveassociationswithatomic,suchas“benefit”,“energy”,etc.b.AJapaneseresidentofHiroshima,victimoftheatomicexplosionattheendofWorldWarⅡ,mighthaveallthenegativeassociationswithatomic,suchas“suffering”,“killing”,“death”,“horror”,etc.c.Toastudentofnuclearphysics,atomicmightbeassociatedwith“mystery”,“science”,“knowledge”,etc.10.talkative:implyingafondnessfortalkingfrequentlyandatlength(neutral)articulate:expressingoneselfeasilyandclearly(positive)gossip:indulginginidletalkorrumoursaboutothers(negative)rambling:talkingaimlesslywithoutconnectionofideas(negative)fluent:speakingeasily,smoothlyandexpressively(positive)gabby:inclinedtochatter(negative)mouthy:overtlytalkative,especiallyinarudeway(negative)11.NoAppreciativeNeutralPejorativea.particularfastidious/fussyb.criticalfault-finding/pickyc.vogue/stylefadd.artfulcunning/slye.unstablefickle/capriciousf.developingbackward/underdevelopedg.encourage/promoteinstigateh.groupclique/gang12.Whataresemanticfeatures?Semanticfeaturesaretheminimalsemanticcomponentsofwordswhichareabstractedfromthewords,Thesefeaturesareusedtodescribetesenseofeachwords.13.Whatarethemeritsanddemeritsofcomponentialanalysis?Componentialanalysis(CA)isusefulmainlyinthreeaspects.First,CArevealsthesemanticfeaturesofthesenseofawordandhelpsonegrasptheconceptualmeaningoftheword.Second,CAcanhelpshowthesynonymyoftwowordsbygivingthemboththesamecomponents.Third,CAcanhelptellwhetheracollocationorsyntacticstructureisacceptableornot.However,problemsareobvious.First,CAisapplicableonlytoconcretewordswhichhavedefinitereferents,butnottoabstractwordsorwordsexpressingabstractideasorconcepts.Second,CAisusefulinrevealingtheconceptualmeaning,buthelplessinshowingthefigurativemeaningofwords.14.bull[-HUMAN+MALE+ADULT+BOVINE]cow[-HUMAN-MALE+ADULT+BOVINE]calf[-HUMAN±MALE-ADULT+BOVINE]rooster[-HUMAN+MALE+ADULT+GALLINE]hen[-HUMAN-MALE+ADULT+GALLINE]chicken[-HUMAN±MALE±ADULT+GALLINE]KeytoChapter6Polysemy1.Whatispolysemy?Polysemyisasenseofrelationthatdealswithwordsofmorethanonemeaning.Itistheresultofsemanticchange.2.Whenawordiscreated,itismonosemous.Thenhowdoesthewordacquireitsnewmeaningsandbecomepolysemous?IllustrateyourpointwithexamplesTakeneckforexample.Ithasfivesenses：（1）thatpartofamanoranimaljoiningtheheadtothebody；（2）thatpartofthegarment；（3）theneckofananimalusedasfood；（4）anarrowpartbetweentheheadandbodyorbaseofanyobject；（5）thenarrowestpartofanything.Ofthesefivemeanings，（1）isthemeaninggiventothewordwhenitwascreatedandalltherestwerederivedlaterintheprocessofdevelopment.3.Whatisthefundamentaldifferencebetweenradiationandconcatenation?Aworddevelopsitsmeaningthroughtheprocessofeitherradiationorconcatenation,andinmanycases,ofboth.Radiationisasemanticprocesswhichshowsthattheprimarymeaningandeachofthederivedmeaningsaredirectlyconnected.Concatenationisasemanticprocesswhichshowsthattheprimarymeaninggivesbirthtoasecondmeaningandthissecondmeaninginturngivesbirthtoathirdmeaningandsoon.Eachofthederivedmeaningisrelatedonlytothepreviousmeaningandthereisnodirectconnectionbetweentheprimarymeaningtothelatestdevelopedmeaning.4.Thewordboarddevelopedmainlythroughtheprocessofconcatenationbutradiationalsoperformed.Itfirstdenoted“atable”andlateracquiredtwoverydivergentsenses.EachofthemhasgivenrisetoanothersensefromwhichtheOriginalnotionhasdisappearedasillustratedinthediagraphbelow.Homonymy1Whatarethe3typesofhomonyms?DefineeachtypewithexamplesHomonymsfallintothreetypes:(1)perfecthomonyms.(2)homographsand(3)homophones.Homonymsoftype(1)arewordswiththesamespellingandpronunciation,e.g.bank（银行）-----bank(岸);wordsoftype(2)arebow/ᵇᵊᶷ/（n.弓）---bow/ᵇᵃᶷ/(ν.鞠躬);thoseoftype(3)arefound/ᶠᵃᶷᵑᵈ/(ʋ.)--found/ᶠᵃᶷᵑᵈ/(pastformoffind),ad/ᵆᵈ/--add/ᵆᵈ/andsoon.2.Howdohomonymscomeabout?SpecifythemajorsourcesEnglishhomonymscameaboutmainly(1)bychangeinsoundandspelling,i.e.wordsoriginallydifferentinsoundandspellinglatercoincidedinsoundandspellingthroughchange(2)byborrowing,i.e.anativewordforminghomonymswithaborrowedword;(3)byshortening,i.e.acommonwordforminghomonymswithaformshortenedfromanotherword.3.Wecandistinguishpolysemantsfromhomonymsbyreferencetothesourceandsemanticrelatedness.Apolysemanthasasinglesourcewhereashomonymscomefromtwodifferentsources.Apolysemanthasdifferentmeaningswhicharerelatedtooneanotherwhilethemeaningsofthehomonymsarenotrelatedatall.4.(1)Makebothendsmeatisaparodyofmakebothendsmeetwhichmeans“haveenoughmoneyforone’sneeds”.Herethebutchercleverlyusesthepairofhomonymsmeatandmeettomakeapun.Itmakesaproperanswertothelady’squestion.1)Butcherscannotmakebothendsmeat(makesausageswithallmeat)becausetheycannotmakebothendsmeet(Iftheymadesausageswithallmeat,whichismorecostly,theywouldnotearnenoughmoneytosurvive)2)Don’tcomplain.Iamnottheonlyonewhoismakingsausageswithbread.Allthebutchersdothesame.(2)Swallowisabirdwhoisseeninsummer.Butbyoneswallowwesee,wecannotdeducethatitisalreadysummertime.Swallowcanalsomeanamouthfulofwine.Onacoldwinterday,ifonehasaswallowofwine,onemayfeelwarm.(3)Armshastwomeanings:1)weapons;2)thehumanupperlimbs.Since“acannon-balltookoffhislegs”,thesoldierwasnotabletofighton,sohe“laiddownhisarms”,whichmeans“surrender”.Itcanalsomeanhelaiddownhisupperlimbs.Synonymy1.Howdoyouunderstandthestatementthat'truesynonymyisnon-existent'?Synonymsarethesameinmeaning.Asmentionedbefore,meaningisacompositeconcept;therearedifferentkindsofmeaning.Evenabsolutesynonymsmaydifferinoneormoreaspects,forexample,onewordmaybemorefrequentlyusedthantheothersuchasword-building—word-formation,compounding—composition.Thetwowordsofeachpairareinterchangeable,butsomepeoplepreferthefirstwordofthepairandothersliketheother.Inthissense,wecansaythereisnotruesynonymyinanaturallanguage.2.Whatarethemajorsourcesofenglishsynonyms?Synonymscomefromdifferentsources,namely,(1)borrowing,i.e.nativewordsformingsynonymswithborrowedwordsoroneforeignwordbecomingsynonymouswithanotherforeignword;(2)figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords,i.e.somewordsformingsynonymswithotherwordsusedfigurativelyoreuphemistically,etc.3.avaricious:greedycourteously:politelyemancipate:setfreecustomary:usualWidth:breadthadversary:opponentgullible:deceivedremainder:residueinnocent:sinlessObstacle;obstructionVexation;annoyance4differentiatethefollowinggroupsofsynonymsa.cautious:implyingacarefulguardagainstpossibledangersorriskscareful:payingcloseattentionsoastoguardagainsterror,injuryetc.shrewd:showinggoodjudgmentgainedfrompracticalexperience(notsynonymouswiththeothertwo)b:calmfreefromexcitementornervousactivityorstrongfellingpeaceful:quiteandcalmserene:completelycalmandpeacefulc.decline:implyingapolitedenialrefuse:amoredirect,evenblunttermimplyinganemphaticdenialobject:feelorshowoppositionordisapproval(notsynonymouswiththeothertwo)d.postpone:arrangeforaneventtotakeplaceforalatertimeadjourn(oftenpassive)stopameetingoraofficialprocessforaperiodoftime,especiallyinacourtoflawdelay:putofftoalatertime,interchangeablewithpostponee.powerful:(ofpeople)abletocontrolorinfluencepeopleoreventinfluential:havingalotofinfluenceonsborsthf.boy:amalechildoryoungmalepersonyouth:(oftenderogatory)ayoungman;ayoungpeople,maleorfemalelad:(oldfashionedorinformal)aboyorayoungmang.bachelor；amanwhohasnevermarriedwidower:amanwhosewifehasdiedandnotmarriedagainman:anadultmanh.zealous:(formal,usuallyimperative)showinggreatenergyandenthusiasmeager:fellingorshowinggreatdesire;keenenthusiastic:showinglivelyinteresti.fear:anxietyordistresscausedbytheawarenessofdangerorexpectationofpainhorror:greatfearordisgustpanic:asuddenfeelingofgreatfearj.summary:ashortaccountoutliningthemainpointsprécis:(Frenchborrowing)asummarydigest:asummaryorshortenedversion;acollectionofshortreportsk.abuse:rudeorinsultingwordssaidtooraboutsb;badorcrueltreatmentinsult:arudeoroffensiveremarkslander:afalsestatementintendedtodamagesb.l.amend:makechangesinaruleorlawrectify:(formal)putrightsomethingthatiswrongcorrect:makesth.rightbychangingitorremovingmistakes;(ofateacher)markthemistakesinapieceofworktogiveamarkorgrade5.a.identifiableb.safetyc.motivatesd.delicatee.surroundingsf.artificialg.prestigeh.perspirei.accomplishmentj.silentk.impressivel.evaporate6.runmovespinturnwhirlroll7.a.steedb.gee-geec.riped.maturee.effectivef.efficientg.fatigued;childrenh.tired;kidsi.declinedj.refusedk.rancidl.addledm.Penaltiesn.fineso.rebukedp.accusedAntonymy1.Whatismeantbyantonymy?Antonymyisconcernedwithsemanticopposition.Andantonymsarewordsoppositeinmeanings.2.Whatarethecharacteristicsofeachofthe3typesofantonyms,complementaries,contraries,converses?Theseantonymsrepresenttrueoppositenessofmeaning:complementaries,contraries,converses.(1)Complementariesarenon—gradableandmutuallyexclusive,andallownopossibilityinbetweenandtheassertionofoneisthedenialoftheother,e.g.alive—dead,true—false.(2)Contrariesarebestviewedintermsofascalerunningbetweentwopolesorextremes.Thetwooppositesaregradableandoneexistsincomparisonwiththeother,e.g.old—young,far—near.(3)Conservesarerelationalopposites,showingsocialrelation,e.g.employer—employee;reciprocalrelation,e.g.teacher—student,andspatialrelation,e.g.above—blow.3.CanyouillustratesemanticinclusionamongantonymsSemanticinclusionreferstosomepairsofantonyms,inwhichonewordincludethemeaningoftheother.Takeman—woman,big–smallforexample:(1)Thereisnomanontheisland.(implyingnopeopleatallincludingwoman)(2)Thereisnowomanontheisland.(implyingallthepeoplearemen)(3)Howbigisthestone?(thestonecanbeverysmall)(4)Howsmallisthestone?(thestonecannotbebig)Inexamples(1)and(2),manincludethemeaningofwoman;in(3)and(4),bigcoversthemeaningofsmall.4.Whycanawordhavemorethanoneantonyms?GiveexamplesWhetherawordhasantonymsornotdependsonthesensesofit.Ifthewordhasmorethanonesense,itmayhaveoveroneantonym.Takeclearforexample:clearanswer→confusing/ambiguousclearmind→muddledclearplasticbag→opaqueclearwater→dirtyclearconscience→guilty5.a.similar/sameb.Safec.sharp/smartd.sende.stingy/selfishf.significant/sensibleg.skeptical/suspicioush.simplei.surej.slipshod/slovenly/sloppyk.sleepless/sleep/slumberl.Smoothm.subjectiven.sob/scowl6a.old-fashionedb.Completelyc.moistured.Speciale.essentialf.Similarityg.innocenth.Rigidi.loosenj.clarityk.desertedl.Fruitfulm.peremptoryn.depressed7a.feed—starve;cold—feverb.wisdom—folliesc.haste—leisured.penny—pound;wise—foolishe.speech—silencef.absence—presenceg.admonish—praise;private—publich.young—old;saint—devili.wisemen—foolsj.mind—bodyk.foul—fairl.danger—securitym.deliberate—promptn.children—parentso.bully—cowardp.head—tail8.right—wrongsingle—returndry—sweethard—easystrong—faintrough—calmlight—darkcold—warmhigh—low/deepHyponymy1.Whatishyponymy?Hyponymydealswithrelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Themeaningofamorespecificwordisthatofanothermoregeneralword,e.g.roseisthehyponymyofflowers,andcatisthehyponymofanimal.Roseandcatarespecificwords.Theyareincludedinflowerandanimals,whicharegeneralterms.2.Whatisthedifferencebetweensuperordinatesandsubordinates?Superordinatesaregeneraltermsandsubordinatesarespecificwordsandsuperordinatesincludespecificwordsinconcept.Accordingly,flowerandanimalaresuperordinatesandroseandcataresubordinates.3.superordinatesubordinatefurnituredesk,chair,table,bedmatterliquid,gas,solidmeatpork,beef,muttongorun,fly,walk4.professionworkplacesurgeonclinic,hospitalplumberhouses,buildingslawyeroffice,lawcourtsmechanicgaragephotographerstudioforemanworksite,factory5.6.Commentonthefollowing2pairsofsentencesintermsofsuperordinatesandsubordinatesInthefirstpair,got,furniture,recentlyinsentence(a)aresuperordinatesbecausetheyaregeneralandconveyaveryvagueideawhereasinsentence(b),thethreeswordsarereplacedrespectivelybybought,cupboard,threedaysago,whicharesubordinates,conveyingadefiniteandclearidea.Sosentence(b)isbetterthansentence(a).Inthesecondpair,itissaid,magnificentbuilding,destroyed,yesterdayinsentence(a)issuperordinateterms,whicharecomparativelymuchmoregeneralthanthenewsdays,RoyalHotel,burntdown,lastnightrespectiveinsentence(b),whichcanbedescribedassubordinates.Sincesentence(b)isclearerthansentence(a)inmeaning,itisbetter.Semanticfield1.Whatissemanticfield?Semanticfieldsrefertosetsofwordsaresemanticallyrelated.Takethesemanticfieldf“fruits”forexampleinwhichapple,pear,peach,apricot,date,mango,pineapple,orange,lemon,etc.aresemanticallyrelated.2.isfieldtheoryinanywayhelpfulinlanguagelearning?Themeaningofaworddoesnotexitintheworlditself,butspreadsovertheneighbouringwords,becausetheneighbouringwordsidentifythesemanticfieldandhelppindownthemeaning.Forexample,orangedoesn'tmeananythinguntilweputitinaparticularfield.Inthesetorange,red,yellow,orangeisakindofcolour;inthesetorange,pear,peach,orangeiskindoffruit;inthesetorange,coke,pepsi,sprite,itisakindofdrink.3.Group1isasynonymouslysemanticfieldandGroup2isasemanticfield.Thedifferencelies:InGroup1thewordsaresynonyms,noneofthemcoversthemeaningofanother,andtheydifferonlyinstyleandemotivevalues.InGroup2thewordsarenotsynonyms,buteachreferstoaspecifictypeofhorse.Horseisacovertermorsuperordinate,othersaresubordinates.Thesetermshavenodifferenceinstyleoraffectivemeaning.Indo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyBalto-SlavicLithuanianPrussianPolishSlavenianRussianBulgarianIndo-IranianHindiPerianCelticBretonScottishIrishItalicSpanishFrenchItalianPortugueseRoumanianHellenicGreekGermanicEnglishSwedishGermanIcelangicDanishDutchmorphemefreemorpheme=freerootboundmorphemeBoundrootaffixinflectionalaffixderivationalaffixprefixsuffix