语言学教程Language-change-and-history..

LanguageChangeandHistoryOutlineIntroductionMajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglishOldEnglishMiddleEnglishModernEnglishChangesinthedevelopmentoflanguagesoundchangesyntacticchangelexicalchangeConclusionLanguagechangeThehistoryofEnglishPhonologicalchangesSemanticchangesThehistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(450-1100AD)MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)ModernEnglishEarlyModernEnglish(1500-1800)LateModernEnglish(1800-Present)LateModernEnglish(1800-Present)maindifference:vocabularyLateModernEnglish:manymorewordstwofactors:theIndustrialRevolutionandtechnologytheBritishEmpireatitsheightcoveredonequarteroftheearth'ssurfaceLanguagechangeAspectsofChanges:PhonologicalMorphologicalSemanticPhonologicalchangesOldEnglish[ā]stānhāmwrātrādModernEnglish[əu]stonehomewroterodePhonologicalchangesMiddleEnglish[i:][u:][ɔ:]ModernEnglish[ai][au][əu]E.g.,mice,mouse,brokewife,house,homeSemanticchangesSemanticbroadeningSemanticnarrowingSemanticshiftSemanticbroadeningholiday:[+specific]holyday[+general]anyrestdaytail:[+specific]tailofahorse[+general]tailofanyanimalSemanticnarrowingdeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalmeat:foodediblepartofananimalSemanticshiftnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finesilly:happynaive,foolishOldEnglish(450~1150)OldEnglishPartofBeowulfabouthalfofthemostcommonlyusedwordsinModernEnglishhaveOldEnglishrootsOldEnglish(450~1150)OldEnglish(450~1150)God’swrathtowardBritain:Angles,Saxons,JutesChristianity(6th~8th)Viking(8th~9th)WhattheRomansdidforEnglishJuliusCaesar(55BC~410AD):Britainwasundercontrolfor300yearsbyRomans.Officiallanguage:Latin(butmostpeoplespeakCeltic(凯尔特语)10000wordsfromFrenchcameintocommonusageinEnglish.RomansgraduallywithdrawfromBritainandthenGermanictribescame.ThearrivalofAnglo-SaxonsStatus：MostbasictermsinourlanguageBeowulf(贝奥武夫):1069compoundwordsinthisepicwhichistotally3183lines.Affix(词缀):for-，in-，-ful，-dom，-hood，-ship，-ness，-the，-ful，-ishLatinelementsChristianity:manywordsaboutreligionandforeignproductswereborrowed.E.g.angel,bishop,candle,church,school,priest,copper,pine,etc.Alliteration(头韵)E.g.mightandmainfriendandfoelaboroflove　　TheVikingScandinaviaInfluence:CulturefusionoldNorsebringsanumberofcommonmodernterms(e.g.give,law,skin,take,etc)古英语的词汇不是完全由日尔曼语的成分组成，日尔曼语的成分是主要地位，但同时也有一些借词凯尔特借字：Lunden“London,伦敦”cumb“deepvalleyluh“lake湖”cursian“curse诅咒”拉丁语借字：caseus“cheese干酪”signum“sign,符号,标记”斯堪的维亚语借字：人名和地名中-by,-thorp,-thwaite,-toft日常生活用语，形容词，动词等。MiddleEnglishperiod(1066-1485)HistoricalBackgroundWhataretheimportanteventsinthisperiod?TheNormanConquest1381uprisingHundredYearsWar(1337-1453)WarofRoses(1455-1485)TheNormanConquestIn1066,atthebattleofHastings,William,theenergeticDukeofNormandy,defeatedtheAnglo-SaxonsandbecamethekingTheConsequenceoftheConquestPolitically,afeudalsystemandacentralizedgovernmentestablished.Religiously,theCatholicChurchhadamuchstrongercontrol.NormansbroughttoEnglandtheirownliterature.TheNormanConquestIn1066,atthebattleofHastings,William,theenergeticDukeofNormandy,defeatedtheAnglo-SaxonsandbecamethekingTheConsequenceoftheConquestPolitically,afeudalsystemandacentralizedgovernmentestablished.Religiously,theCatholicChurchhadamuchstrongercontrol.NormansbroughttoEnglandtheirownliterature.ImpactofNormanFrenchvocabulary1)governmental: noble,parliament.   2)military: battle,navy,aid,march,enemy,escape,peace,war.   3)judicialsystem:judge,justice,court,suit,defendant,crime,murder,attorney,heir.4)ecclesiastical（教会的）: clergy,altar,pray.5)cuisine: sauce,boil,soup,pastry,fry,roast,toast.6)personalnames:Charles,William,RichardMiddleEnglishLiteratureawiderrangeofsubjectsagreaterdiversityofstylesandgenres.reflectsthemedievalChristiandoctrineMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)Foraperiodtherewasakindoflinguisticdivision，wherethelowerclassesspokeEnglishandtheupperclassesspokeFrench.linguisticclassdivisionlowerclassesEnglishupperclassesFrenchMiddleEnglishthelanguageofthegreatpoetChaucer(c1340-1400)AnexampleofMiddleEnglishbyChaucer.EarlyModernEnglish(1500-1800)the16thcentury--1.contactwithmanypeoplesfromaroundtheworld.2.theRenaissanceofClassicallearningTheinventionofprintingthestandardizationofEnglish(thedialectofLondon)In1604thefirstEnglishdictionarywaspublished"Tobe,ornottobe"byShakespeare.SoundChangeTheGreatVowelShift（元音大换位）wasamajorchangeinthepronunciationoftheEnglishlanguagethattookplaceinEnglandbetween1350and1500.ThekeypronunciationfeaturesoftheGreatVowelShiftarethefollowing:Vowelraising,Vowelfronting,DiphthongizationSoundChangeTheGreatVowelShiftauaii:eieu:a:əuɔMice[mi:s]→[mais]Mouse[mu:s]→[maus]Sound/phonologicalchange:systematic;regularpatternofpronunciationchangesa)VowelsoundchangeGreatVowelShift（元音大换位）,whichoccurredattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiod,approximatelybetween1400and1600andwhichinvolved7longvowels,ledtooneofthemajordisagreementsbetweenthepronunciationandthespellingsystemofModernEnglish.Forexample: MiddleEnglish ModernEnglishFivefi:vfaivmouse mu:s maUsfeetfe:tfi:tmood m:dmu:dbreak brZ:kenbreikbroke brC:kenbrEUkName na:meneimb)SoundlossSomesoundsinEnglishhavesimplydisappearedfromthegeneralpronunciationofEnglish.-----thevoicelessvelarfricative/x/,"nicht"/nixt/nightsorh/sorx/sorrow-----/k/soundin/kn-/clustersinthewordinitialposition"knight“"knee"-----Anothersoundlossisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment,aphenomenoncalledapocope.词尾脱落/na:mə//neim//lQvə//lQv/c)SoundadditionSoundadditionincludesthegainorinsertionofasound.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis插音,forexample:          emty        empty           glimse      glimpsespinlespindled)SoundmovementMetathesis换位referstosoundchangebecauseofareversalinthepositionsoftwoneighboringsounds.briddbirdhroshorseSyntacticchangesAdditionofaffixesLossofaffixesChangeofwordorderChangeinnegationruleSyntactic（句法）changesAdditionofaffixes(词缀)InEnglish,manyaffixesareborrowedfromFrenchwordswhichcontainsuffixesduringtheMiddleEnglishperiod.Suchas:1.thesuffix"-ment"fromFrenchE.g.accomplishmentacknowlegement2."-able"v.+-able=adj.E.g.favorableconceivable......FusionFusionreferstothistypeofgrammaticalization(语法化)inwhichwordsdevelopintoaffixes(词缀),eitherprefixes(前缀)or(suffixes)后缀.E.g.base基础词+affix(suffixation)rich+ful=richful后缀法E.g.affix+base(prefixation)dis+like=dislike前缀法2.LossofaffixesOldEnglishhadanumberofcase（格）andgenderdistinctionswhichwerelostduringtheMiddleEnglishperiod，whichwasthemostSignificantchangeinEnglish.InOldEnglish,nounsweredividedintothreegenderclasses:musculine阳性neuter中性feminine阴性E.g.Wīfmann(woman)阳性Wīf(woman)中性geif(gift)阴性3.ChangeofwordorderObviously,themostcommonorderintheMordernEnglishisthesubject-verb-objectorder,whichcanalsobeseeninOldEnglishtexts.ThewordordersinOldEnglishincludedSVO,VSO,SOVandOSV,butModernEnglishhaslostthemajorityofcasemarkers,thereforeabasicwordorderofSVOhastobefollowed.Forexample1.WhenthedirectobjectswasapronouninOldEnglish,theorderwas:SOVshehimadvised(OldEnglish)="sheadvisedhim"（MordernEnglish）2.TheobjectcanbeplacedatthebeginningofthesentenceHimmannesealde.（OldEnglish）Himmannogave.Nomangave(any)tohim.（MordernEnglish）4.ChangeinnegationruleTheuseofthenagtivealsodiffersfromModernEnglish.E.g.OldEnglish:Modernversion:Forget-me-notDon’tforgetme.Theylovetheenot.Theydon’tloveyou.Hesawyounot.Hedidnotseeyou.Lexicalchanges一.Borrowing二.Lossofword三.Semanticchanges1.broadening2.narrowing3.shifting四.TheprocessofchangeBorrowingDefinition:whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoften“borrowed”fromonelanguagetoanother.〈Latin.Greek.French…〉Latin:cancer,tumorGreek：electricity,atom,obstetricsChinese:wok,kung-fuJapanese:karate空手道what’smoreFoodandcookingFrenchMusicItalianLossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Oneofthelossoflexicalitemsisthediscontinuationoftheobjecttheyname.Example:TheoldEnglish“were”means“man”,nowisnotusedinmodernEnglish“Rice”means“kingdom”SemanticchangesOverthetimemanywordsremaininuse,buttheirmeaningshavechanged.Threesections:BroadeningNarrowingShiftingSemanticbroadeningItreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.Examples:religiousfeastHolydaygeneralbreaktaximposedTaskapieceofworkdrugallergyAllergicboredSemanticnarrowingIt’saprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbe-comeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.Examples:anywomanWifeamarriedfemaleanykindoffoodMetemeatyouthKnightamedievalgentlemanSemanticshiftIt’saprocessofsemanticchangeInwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.Examples:LustpleasuresexualcravingSillyhappynaïveMarshalhorsemanseniorarmyTheprocessofchangeReasons：Wars,invasions,otherupheavals剧变CulturaltransmissionDiachronically历时地:thehistoricalperspectiveofchangethroughtimeSynchronically共时地:intermsofdifferencewithinonelanguageIndifferentplacesandamongdifferentgroupsatthesametimeConclusionNoneofthechangesdescribedherehappenedovernight.Theyweregradualandprobablydifficulttodiscernwhiletheywereinprogress.Languageswillnotremainstable,butthatchangeandvariationareinevitable.