9approachestosyllabusdesign(2)

ApproachestoSyllabusDesign(II)AProportionalsyllabusSofar,wehavediscussedarangeoftypesofsyllabuses:structural,functional,notional,communicative,tasked-basedsyllabus,etc.However,inpracticalteaching,theteachingobjectivescanbefocusedonnotonlytheformsbutalsothefunctionsaswellasotheraspectsofthelanguagewiththedevelopmentoftheteachingphrases.Therefore,abalancebetweenformsandfunctionsorotheraspectsshouldbemaintained.AproportionalsyllabuswasputforwardbyYalden(2000:92).Generalprinciplesfordesigningaproportionalsyllabus1.Choiceofasyllabustype---thebalancedtypeorproportionalsyllabustheadvantagesoftheproportionaltypeofsyllabus:---Itallowsthecoursedesignersfreedomtorespondtochangingornewlyperceivedneedsinthelearners.---Itproducesaframeworkfortheteacherwhowantstostartwithaplan.2.MaintainingthebalanceTakethecaseofaESLcourse,beginningatanelementarylevelofcommunicativecompetence.1)beginswithgrammar&pronunciationonly,asonedoesinastructuralapproach,butintroduceworkinthelanguagefunctions&indiscourseskillsfairlyearly,andintimeincreasethiscomponentofthecourse.Thestudyofgrammarwouldremaininsharperfocusthroughthefirstleveloftheprogramthanwouldthestudyoffunctions&discourseskills.2)teachinginterpersonal&textualareasgainincreasingprominence,butteachinggrammaralsocontinuestooccupyanimportanceplace.3)thebalanceshiftsagain.Workoncommunicative&discoursefunctionsoflanguagepredominates.3.TheplaceofideationalmeaningThewholeareaofnotions&topics(theideationallayerofmeaning)isnotshownasaseparatecomponent.Topics,situations,generalnotions,themescanbethereforebeseenastheframeworksthatprovidesupportfortherestofthecomponentsthatareincluded.Topics&situationwillarisefromaneedssurvey.4.EstablishingtheproportionsInusingthisfullydevelopedproportionalmodel,thereisnostrictseparationbetweenteachingformal&functionalareas.Attheinitialphraseorstructuralphrase,itfocusesmainlyonformalmeaningorlinguisticform,whichisforcompletebeginnersandneednotlastlong.Itprovidesthemwithsomebasicknowledgeofthesystematicorcategoricalsideoflanguage,beforetheyontoamoreinteractivemodeloflearning.Thelengthofthisphrasewilldependonthecircumstancesinwhichthelanguageprogramisbeingconducted.Andthelearners’ownobservationsshouldbetakenintoaccounted.Orthelearnersshouldatleasthaveaminimalleveloflanguageproficiency.TheproportionalsyllabusThisproportionalmodelcanbeusedwheredevelopmentofoverallcompetenceisdesirable.Inthismodel,theorganizationtendstobesemanticratherthanformal.Thelinguisticcomponentistreatedtosystematicallyinearlystages&nonsystematicallyinlaterones.Thecomponentthatprovidescontinuityisthetheme,whichconstitutesaframeworkforseveralunitsormodulesofinstruction.Thethemeischosenaccordingtotheneeds&wishesofthelearners,andseveralthemesmaybeusedduringasinglelanguagecourse.Theymaybesubject-matterrelated,job-relatedorofgeneralinterest.Topics&activitiesprovidethefocus&contentofindividualunitsormodules.Withineachmoduleproportionscanbevariedtoensurebalancebetweenaccuracy&communicativefluency---thatis,betweencontrolofstructure&ofcommunicativeappropriateness.GeneralprinciplesfordesigningframeworkTheuseofframeworksincoursedesignwillbeeasyforteacherstocopewiththeseveralstrandsofcommunicativeproficiencytobedevelopedinthelearner,furthermore,itrecognizesthatteachershaveamajorinfluenceoverwhathappensintheclassroom.Boththedesignoftheframework&itsfinalproduction,thelanguagecourse,shouldbeconductedwithasmuchconsultationaspossiblewithallthoseinvolved.Theframeworkmustbekeptlean,&anytendencytodoteachers’workforthemshouldberesisted.Theframeworkmustbewrittensothatitmaybeadaptedeasily.Theframeworkshouldtakeintoaccountavailableresources.Interactiveconstructionnotonlytheemployersorparentsorclient,butalsothelearnersshouldbeconsulted&involvedinthedesignprocess---needsanalysis(theirbackgroundinformation,interest,learningstyles&preference).iftheframeworkisbeingpreparedforusebyalargeofteacherstoproduceavarietyofdifferentcourses,itmaybenecessarytouseasampleofinformationfrompotentialortypicallearners.teachingresources:teaching&learningaidsLeannessofinitialdesignoneofthemostdifficultprinciplestoadhereto,atfirst,istheprinciplesofleannessinproducingtheunitsinaframework.Theunitsshouldbeprototypes,notthefinishedproduct.Theyshouldnotlooklikeclassroom-readymaterial.Gettingmaterialreadyforaspecificgroupoflearnersisastepthatfollowsthepreparationoftheprototypicalunits.Adaptability---aframeworkshouldbeflexible.Itmustaccommodatevariationinteachers’styles&inlearners’preferences.Itwillconsistsofunitsbasedonthedatayieldedbytheneedsanalysisoflanguageneeds.Andtheseunitsmaybebasedondiscoursecategories,ontopicsorsituations,orontasks.Resourcesoneshouldmakeuseofresourcesthatarealreadyavailable.forexample,situational-basedframeworksaredesignedtobeusedwithgeneralreferencematerials&booksonteachingtechniques&learningstrategies,language-specificgrammars,textbooks&dictionaries,aswellaslaboratoryfacilities.Theseresourcesareallavailableforthatparticularcontext.Linkingthemodulestheapplicationoftheseprinciplesofsyllabusdesignproducestheme-linkedmodules.Asortofbeadingoccurs,wherethethemeisthestring,&themodulesrepresentbedsoftopics&tasksthatelicitcertainbehavior.A(AStringofTheme-linkedModules)A=thematic&tropicalelements(thestrings),B=linguistic&interactionalelements(thebeads).BasedonYalden1984:19)B1B2B3BnThreeCaseStudiesThesethreecasestudieswillillustratehowtheproportionalsyllabustypecanbeusedtoproduceframework,whichinturnaretobeusedbyteacherstoproducetheirowncourses.Thefirstcaseisaframeworkdesignedforaparticularlanguage-BahasaIndonesia.Theothertwostudiesareofframeworksthatarenotspecifictoanylanguage.Theyareusedtopreparecoursesineitheranumberoflanguage(Task-basedFrameworks&Situation-basedFramework).Eachofthese3frameworkshasadifferentfocus.DiscoursecompetenceishighlightedinCase1.InCase2,thesituationisthebasisofdesign,butthefocusmayshiftfromstrategictodiscoursetosociolinguisticcompetence.TheemphasisofCase3issquarelyontasksthathavetobecarriedout.Discourse–basedframeworksThecontextFromtheinterview,themosturgentneedswereforlanguagetobeusedinasequenceofeventsthatoccurinthelivesofforeignservicepersonneluponarrivalinDjakarta.:arrivingattheairport,gettingtoahotel,gettingsettledintheiraccommodation,goingaboutthecity,meetingpeople.Theneedswerenotjob-specific,butforgeneraldailylifeduringtheposting.Materialsufficientforatleast60hoursofinstructionwasrequired.Theobjectiveswastoprovidelearnerswithlinguistictoolstomanagelifeintheearlystagesofapostingabroad,andalsoprovidetheoptionofrefiningtheirknowledge&skillsatalaterstage.Theteacherneedtoroundoutandsupplementtheinformationprovidedintheunits,progressivelymakingthelanguagemoredifficult.TeachingconstraintsLearnersweretobetaughtonaone-to-onebasisorinverysmallgroups.Teachingmightormightnotbeintensive.Thecourseweregiveninwell-equippedclassroom,withaudiovisualequipmentavailable.Photocopyingfacilitieswereaccessible.Theseatingwasflexible,theroomsasuitablesizeforsmallgroupwork,welllit,andsoon.Inotherword,theywereoptimalphysicalconditions.Theframeworks:basicdecision1.Thereislittleorontreatmentofstructure.2.Theteacherwillprovideasmuchadditionalmaterialaswasrequiredorpossible,giventimeconstraints.3.Themostimportantpartisthatthereisno“hidden”material.Negotiationbetweenteacher&learneroncontent&onactivitiesiscarriedon.Thebookletthatisproducedisaddressedequallytotheteacher&thelearner.Thereisnoteacher’sbook,nolearner’sworkbook,onlyasinglevolume,fromwhichtwopartnersinthissituationwouldproducetheirowncourse.Thepackage1.theframework,intheformofapedagogicalhandbookentitledCommunicativeNeedsCourse(CNC)#1:BahasaIndonesia2.ataperecordingpreparedtoaccompanyaunitonpronunciation3.Ashort,basicgrammarofBahasaIndonesia4.AlargepackageofcommunicativeactivitieskeyedtothetopicalunitsoftheCNC.ThestructureoftheframeworksTableofcontentsHowtousetheCNC;anintroductionforlearners&teachers.Unit1ThesoundsofIndonesiaBasicNotionsManagingaConversation(themostimpotant)Unit2AttheairportUnit3Restaurant&TaxisUnit4Staffing&RunningaHouseholdUnit5MealsatHomeUnit6ShoppingUnit7FindingYourWayAroundUnit8Entertaining&SocialConversationFromUnit2toUnit8,thecontentoftheunitisorganizedbytopics.Unit3Restaurants&TaxisCommunicativeneedsYouwillwanttobeabletohandlethesetopics:1.Meals&refreshmentatarestaurantAskingforawaiter,requestingamenu,orderingfood….2.TaxisGiving&understandingdirections,askingaboutatrip,negotiatingthefare,askingforalternativemeansoftransportation.Meals&RefreshmentatarestaurantA.ManagingaTransactionB.VocabularyWhereisthewaiter?Whatdoyouwant?Iwantthemenu.Idonotwant…butIwilleat….I’mhungry.I’mfull.MayIhavethebill?Howmuchisit?2.TaxisA.ManagingaTransactionB.VocabularyIwanttogoto…,Howmuch?Howmuchwillitcost?That’stoomuch.Iwillpay150rupia.Isthisthewayto…..trafficvocabulary:north,south,left,right,noleftturn,toofast,tooslow,car,bus…..Functionalsectionondirection:fromhereto….gostraightaheaduntil….Theunitendswithasectiononlearningactivitiesandtasks.Theaimofalltheseisconsistentwiththeoverallgoalofdevelopingthelearner’sabilitytogetwhattheywantsinavarietyofsituations.Thediscourse-basedframeworkforBahasaIndonesiacourseisasetofmaterialsfromwhichthelearner&teachertogetherwillderivedthelessonsbyaprocessofnegotiation.TheCNCitselfisveryflexible,onecouldstatwithanyofthesevenunits.Thelearnercanworkwiththeteachertoselecttheunittheywanttostudyandtheorderinwhichtheywanttostudythem.Situation-basedFrameworksThecontextThisframeworkshadtheirgenesisintheneedforcoursesinalargenumberoflanguagesforawiderangeoflearners.Thereislittleornoinformationonthelearnersbeforetheyshowupintheclassroomexceptthattheyallhadcommunicativeneeds.Andthereisverylimitedleadtimetopreparecourses.However,fromthepreviousneedsanalysis,apictureofneedsemergedforlanguagefortravelontoursoronbusiness,forcopingwithdailyneedsinaforeigncountry,andforjob-specificpurposes.TeachingconstraintsThecourseweretobeofferedintheevening,inthecontextofaprograminacontinuingeducation,orduringthedaysoreveningseitherattheuniversityorontheclients’premises.Thatmeansthecoursescouldnotbedesignedforuseinfullyequippedaudiovisualclassroomwithvideotaperecordersandthelike.Buttaperecorderswereeasilyavailable.Teachersweretobenativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.However,theyhadhadlittleornotrainingincommunicativeapproachestosecondlanguageinstructionorinthepreparationofcoursesforspecificpurposes.Therewerenomaterialsavailableotherthanastructuralgrammar&adictionary.Butthereisapossibilityofcollectingautheticmaterialsinthetargetlanguage.Theframeworks:BasicdecisionsAprojectwassetupwiththefollowingobjectives:1.Aframeworkfortheapplicationofsociolinguisticanalysisofcommunicationneedswastobedeveloped.Needssurveywasconductedtodeterminethesituations,topics&functionsthatwouldbemostusefultothelearners.2.Ahandbookaddressedonlytotheteacher.3.Abasicintroductorysetofunitswouldbeproducedtointroduceaminimumoflanguagecoveringbasicnotions,theabilitytomanagediscourse,andsomegeneralcopingstrategies.4.Alongseriesofotherunitswouldbeproduced,onthebasisoftheanalysisoflanguageneeds.5.Topics&situationswouldbeusedasthefocusforeachunit.6.Foreachunit,aseriesofcommunicativeobjectiveswouldbedescribed.7.Alargenumberofteaching/learningstrategies&techniqueswouldbedescribedforeachunit.Thepackage1.Aguidefortheusers,includingabookletorbookletsforthelearners&theteachers,describingthesystem&givingsuggestiononhowtouseit.2.Aguideaddressedspecificallytotheteachers.3.Threeunitscalled“ExpressingBasicConcepts”,“FirstStepstowardCommunication”&“CopingStrategies”.4.Thesituationbasedprototypicalunits.5.Notesonhowtoprepareanintroductiontopronunciation.6.Samplelessons(classroom-readymaterial)7.VideotapeofcommunicativeclassesinESL,demonstratingarangeofteachingtechniques.8.Aslongacollectionaspossibleofculturallyneutralteachingmaterials&aids,gearedtotheunits.9.Aslargeacollectionaspossibleofbookscontainingideasforcommunicativeactivitiesforsecondlanguageteaching.Theywouldserveasreferencesforteachers,andcouldincludetextbooks.Language-specificteaching/learningmaterials:Referencegrammarsforteachers,&learners’grammarsDictionariesReferencesonphonologyRealia/teachingaids,authenticmaterials(print&nonprint)ThestructureoftheframeworksExtractfromthesesituation-basedframeworks(seeAppendixB)showhowthematerialswritersinterpretedthedecisionsoftheworkinggroup.Task-basedframeworksThecontextItwastofocusquitenarrowlyontheneedsofCanadiangovernmentofficialsresponsiblefortrade&commerceinembassiesabroad.AninventoryoftargettaskswhichwererequiredforanofficertofunctionadequatelyinaparticulartargetsituationTopicshadtodowithinternationalbusiness,tradedevelopments,exportofmanufacturedgoods,tradepolicy&relationsandsoon.Morespecifictopicsincludeinterestrates,lettersofcredit,contractstodrilloilwells.Thephysicalsettingsincludeoffices,hotels,tradefairs,agriculturaltour,aswellasrestaurants&socialgatherings.Andotherfamiliarsettinglikehome,theembassy,inthestreet,shops.TeachingconstraintsTheteachingconstraintswerethesameasforthediscourse–basedframeworks.Thesamephysicalconditions&teacherswereanticipated.Differencesliedin1)therewasplentyofmaterialsavailable2)thelanguagestobetaughtwereknownwellinadvance3)thegroupsoflearnersmightbelarger4)leadtimeforpreparationwasgreater5)thetask-basedframeworksweretobefortheintermediatelevel.BasicdecisionsOneofthemeansofevaluationwaswhethertheofficerscouldperformtasksinthetargetlanguage.Thus,taskseemtobethebestfocustouseinIdentifyinglearners’needsDefiningsyllabuscontentsOrganizinglanguageacquisitionopportunities’MeasuringstudentachievementTheteacherwouldretaintheroleofproviderofresources&creatorofopportunitiesforsecondlanguagelearning.ThepackageThepackagetobedeliveredtotheclientsconsistedoftheprototypicalunits&asetoflearningactivities.Theprototypesweretohavethefollowingcharacteristics:1)theywerewritteninEnglish2)theywouldconstitutetherawmaterialfromwhichteacher&learnertogetherwouldwork3)theywouldconsistodasetoftasks4)thedescriptionofeachtaskwouldincludeadescriptionofpurpose5)avarietyofteaching/learningtechniqueswouldbesuggested.StructureoftheframeworksTwocategoriesofskillswereadopted:\1)prototypesforthepreparationofmodulesfordevelopingskillsincommunication2)prototypesforthepreparationofmodulestohelplearnersapplytheseskillstotasksthatwouldstimulateon-the-jobencountersinthetargetlanguages.Thelistofprototypescomprisesacoreofunitsthatrespondtothemostfrequentlycitedcommunicationneedsasdisplayedinthematrix.Onlythosethatseemedmosturgentlyrequiredbythecommercialofficerswereextracted.Theunitsoftheframeworksarenotarrangedinahierarchyofeitherdifficultyorpotentialusefulness.Thelearnershouldhaveinputonthesubjectofusefulness;theteachercanmaketheclassroominteractionmoreorlessdifficultaccordingtothelearner’sneeds.Thustheunitscanberecycledbothforclassesatdifferentlevels&toindividualizetheinstruction---animportantprincipleSummaryAuthenticmaterialsfromeachtargetculturewouldberequired.Assemblingasupplyofmaterials(newspapers,magazines,telephonedirectories,maps)wouldbehelpfulintransposingtheprototypestolanguage–specificteachingsituations.Themoreprototypescanbemadetofitintothetargetculture,themoreeffectivetheinstructionshouldbe.Theteachersshouldnotallowedtoassumeadominantroleintheconstructionoftheteachingprogram.Rather,theprocessisseenasthree-way:linguist-learner-teacher,workingcooperatively.Theteachershouldbeencouragedtobuildupabankofactivitytypes&tasktypesthatcouldbedrawnonbyallthoseusingtheseframeworks.Atthispoint,thepreparationoftheframeworkswascomplete,andtheywerereadyfordeliverytotheclients.