《新编简明英语语言学教程》章期末复习

ChapteroneIntroduction1.1什么是语言学1.1.1定义语言学LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.1.1.2Thescopeoflinguistics语言学分支必考P2普通语言学GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音位学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics成对的概念辨析差异必考P3（1）Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.规定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.（2）Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.（3）Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.（4）Langueandparole语言和言语必考名解P4TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.语言langue（抽象）Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.言语parole（具体）Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.（5）Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.语言运用performance（具体）Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。（6）Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics传统语法和现代语法ItisgenerallybelievedthatthebeginningofmodernlinguisticswasmarkedbythepublicationofF·deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.Beforethatistraditionalgrammar.Differencesbetweentraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics:Modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.(Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon’high’writtenlanguage.传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。)1.2什么是语言1.2.1定义语言language：Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。1.2.2Designfeaturesoflanguage必考P8Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions⑵ProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.⑶DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.⑷DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.⑸CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.1.2.3Functionsoflanguage语言的功能Descriptivefunction,expressivefunction,socialfunctionSixelementsofaspeecheventspecifiedbyJakobson:Addresser-Emotive感情功能Addressee-Conative意动功能Context-Referential所指功能Message-Poetic诗歌功能Contact-Phaticcommunion寒暄功能Code-Metalinguistic无语言功能ChapterTwoPhonology2.2Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1定义Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音2.2.2Organsofspeech3个区域：thepharyngealcavity咽腔-thethroat，theoralcavity口腔-themouth，nasalcavity鼻腔-thenose清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.2.2.3宽式音标和严式音标宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.严式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.送气Aspirated不送气Unaspirated2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类Vowelandconsonant元音辅音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsa:intermsofthemannersofarticulation(发音方式):Stops(爆破音):pbtdkg6Fricatives(摩擦音):/f//v//θ//ð//s//z//ʃ//ʒ/h//r/8Affricatives(塞擦音):/tʃ//dʒ/Liquids(清音):/l//r/Nasals(鼻音):/m,n,η/Glides(滑音):/wj/b:intermsofplaceofarticulation(发音部位)bilabials(双唇音):/pbmw/labiodentals(唇齿音):/fv/dentals(齿音):/ð//θ/alveolars(齿龈音):/tdnlrs/6palatals(腭音):/jʃʒtʃd/5velars(软腭音):/kgη/glottal(喉音):/h/ClassificationofEnglishvowelsa:thepositionofthetoneinmouth:front,central,back,b:theopennessofthemouth:closedsemi-closedsemi-openandopen.c:theshapeofthelips:roundedandunroundedd:thelengthofthevowels:tenseandlaxorlongandshort2.3Phonplogy音位学2.3.2Phone,phonemeandallophone音素Phoneaphoneticunitorsegment.音位Phonemeacollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.2.3.4explainthesequentialruleandtheassimilationrule.序列规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则DeletionruleIt’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征重音Stress声调ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.语调IntonationChapterThreeMorphology形态学3.2OpenclassandclosedclassOpenclasswords实词，词数可增加Closedclasswords虚词，词数稳定3.3Morphemes词素词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.3.4词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.3.5Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme派生Derivationalmorphemes:themorphemeswhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassofwordsE.g.modern---modernizelength---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.曲折Inflectionalmorphemes:themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifysuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,E.g.a)Number:tablesapplescarsb)Person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)Case:John/John’s派生词Derivation复合词CompoundsChapterFourSyntax句法学句法学Syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures短语分类与结构Phrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasnounphrase:NP(N),verbphrase:VP(V),adjectivephrase:AP(A),andprepositional:PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead（中心语）----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier（标志成分）----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补足成分）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasestructurerules:Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det限定词)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual修饰词)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg程度词)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestationS→NPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)Doinsertion:InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.句法类型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.表层结构S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.深层结构D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.普遍语法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.NP’thestudentwholikeslinguistics’consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。4.6.5Moveαandconstraintsontransformationsα位移和转换的限制必考（定义和作用）ThisgeneralruleisreferredtoasMoveα,where“alpha”isacovertermforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.（我也不知道作用是啥，就会用）这章重点就是画图Chapter5Semantics语义学Semantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（对意义的研究）同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.同音(形)异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.预设PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.句子间的意义关系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithY.互为同义、同对错XentailsY.包含关系-X包含YXpresupposesY.假设、推测由X推测出YXisacontradiction.矛盾句Xissemanticallyanomalous.不等逻辑、错误逻辑5.2.3Contextualism语境论必考，考啥未知P64自己看书5.5.1Componentialanalysis语义成分ComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysisisawayproposedbythestructuresemanticists（结构语义学）toanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofaworldcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures（语义特征）.述谓分析PredicationanalysisAwaytoanalyzesentencemeaning.主项（论元）argument+（谓词）predicateEg.(Thedogs)主项(barks)谓词.带一个主项的述谓one-placepredicationChapter6pragmatics语用学Pragmatics必考Thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.Pragmatics=semantics+context语境ContextItisgenerallyconsiderdasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.语句意义与话语意义SentencemeaningV.SutterancemeaningIfwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.6.2言语行为理论Speechacttheory必考P80It’sanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.it’saphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion”whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact（言内行为）,theillocutionaryact（言外行为）,theperlocutionaryact（言后行为）andthecategoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.言内行为LocutionaryActAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Searle’sclassificationofspeechact必考P82阐述性Representatives---tocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingtheCase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.例词:stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing最有代表性,指令性Directives---areattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.例词:inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering是特有实例承诺性Commissives---whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation.例词:promising,undertaking,vowing最典型表达类Expressives---thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs.例词:apologizing,thanking,congratulating宣告类Declarations---thesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.例句:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen/Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee/Ifireyou.这五类differintheirstrengthorforce.合作原则（CP原则）Principlesofconversation(Co-operativeprinciples)ProposedbyPaulGrice,alogicianandphilosopher数量准则themaximofQuantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired质量准则themaximofQuality-----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.Donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence关系准则themaximofrelation-----使你的话与话题相关berelevant方式准则themaximofmanner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity;Bebrief/beorderly.Significance:itexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterarysaid.