重建和谐的人自然关系—对《冷山》的生态批评解读

重建和谐的人自然关系—对《冷山》的生态批评解读 M201074655 分 类 号 学号 学校代码 密级 10487 硕士学位论文 重建和谐的人与自然关系 —对《冷山》的生态批评解读 学位人: 袁 泉 学 科 专 业 : 英语语言文学 指导教师: 蒋 红 答 辩 日 期 : 2012 年 5 月 10 日 \ A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Reconstructing a Harmonious Human-Nature Relationship An Eco-critical Interpretation of Cold Mountain Candidate : Yuan Quan Major : English Language and Literature Supervisor: Jiang Hong Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan 430074, P. R. China May, 2012 独创性声明 本人声明所呈交的学位论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研 究成果。尽我所知，除文中已经标明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或 集体已经发或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出贡献的个人和集体，均已在 文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到，本声明的法律结果由本人承担。 学位论文作者签名: 日期: 年 月 日 学位论文版权使用授权书 本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，即:学校有权 保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。 本人授权华中科技大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检 索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。 保密 ，在_____年解密后适用本授权书。 本论文属于 不保密。 (请在以上方框内打―?‖) 学位论文作者签名: 指导教师签名: 日期: 年 月 日 日期: 年 月 日 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Abstract Cold Mountain, Charles Frazier‘s debut novel, receives many awards in America for its thorough portrayal of the subtle human-nature relationship and people‘s affection for the land. Previous studies on this novel mainly focus on the theme of the story such as love, the trauma the war brings to the humans and the yearning for home, whereas only a few researches see it from the perspective of ecocriticism. This paper intends to expound the relationship between humans and nature implied by Charles Frazier in Cold Mountain from the angle of ecocriticism and ecofeminism. This paper is based on two theories, i.e. ecocriticism and ecofeminism. The former argues against anthropocentrism and proposes ecological holism. The latter rebuts the binary opposition and holds the belief that all living beings are created equal. Therefore, these two theories share much common ground. This paper discusses Frazier‘s anti-anthropocentic attitude through reflecting the causes of the Civil War, which are bounded by anthropocentrism. By analyzing the survival crisis which results from the food shortage and the reinforcement of patriarchal culture, this paper reveals the effect of the war—the imbalanced human-nature relationship. It also analyzes three women‘s affinity with nature to highlight the role of women in reconstruction of human-nature relationship. The interpretation of the story of the two deserters which implicitly suggests the reconciliation between men and nature demonstrates the writer‘s intention to reconstruct a harmonious relationship between human race and nature. To appreciate Cold Mountain with an eco-critical thinking will not only dig out the subtle relationship between mankind and land implied by Frazier, but also provide another way to further understand this novel. Meanwhile, the paper awakens people to the root of environmental issues and ecological crisis as well as arouses people to inspect our deeds in order to protect our planet. Key words: Cold Mountain ecocriticism ecofeminism human-nature relationship I 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 摘 要 查尔斯?弗雷泽的处女作《冷山》因描写了人与自然的微妙关系以及人与土地的 情感而获得美国各大图书奖项。前人主要对《冷山》的主如爱情，战争给人类带 来的创伤，对家园的渴望等进行了研究。很少有学者从生态批评的角度解读《冷山》。 本文从生态批评及生态女性主义的角度来解读《冷山》，旨在深入挖掘作者隐含的 人与自然的联系。 论文以生态批评和生态女性主义为理论基础。生态批评反对人类中心主义，提 倡生态整理论。生态女性主义驳斥二元对立的思想，提倡万物平等。这两者的思想 是一致的。 结合文本，笔者从生态批评的角度观照内战的原因—人类中心主义对人的束缚， 指出了作品蕴含的反人类中心主义的思想倾向。通过分析生存危机，物质上食物的 短缺，精神上父权制的加强，揭示战争带来的后果—人与自然关系的失衡。通过分 析三位女性与大自然的亲密关系，突出了女性在重建人与自然和谐关系的作用。通 过对两个逃兵经历的解读，揭示了小说中隐含的男性与自然对立关系的转变，进一 步阐释了作者重构人与自然和谐关系的愿望。 从生态批评的视角解读《冷山》，不仅有助于深刻剖析查尔斯?弗雷泽暗示的人 与土地的关系，也为解读《冷山》开辟了一条新的路径。同时，面对当前日益突出 的环境问题和生态危机，查尔斯?弗雷泽无疑为人类重审自己的行为敲响了警钟。 生态女性主义 人与自然的关系关键词: 《冷山》 生态批评 II 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Contents Abstract ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????I 摘 要 ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? II Introduction ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????(1) 1 Literature Review 1.1 Previous Studies on Cold Mountain in China ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (3) Previous Studies on 1.2 Cold Mountain abroad ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (5) 2 Theoretical Basis 2.1 Ecocriticism ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (8) 2.2 Ecofeminism????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (14) 3 Reflections on the Imbalanced Human-Nature Relationship 3.1 Reinterpretation of the Civil War ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (17) 3.2 Charles Frazier‘s Ecological Awareness???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (26) 4 Reconstruction of a Harmonious Human-Nature Relationship 4.1 Women‘s Affinity with Nature ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (34) 4.2 Interpretation of the Deserters‘ Change????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (41) Conclusion ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????(51) Works Cited ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????(55) Acknowledgements ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????(59) III 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Introduction Charles Frazier‘s first novel, Cold Mountain, enjoyed enormous popularity upon publication in 1997 and received the National Book Award that year. Born in North Carolina in 1950, Charles Frazier has spent most of his time in his hometown up till now. He graduated from the University of North Carolina in 1973 and received his Ph. D. in English from the University of South Carolina in 1986. Naturally, the plot of Cold Mountain is set in North Carolina, and so is his successive books Thirteen Moons. It is remarkable that the author did not make a name until this book came into being. And it was made into a successful movie several years later, receiving noticeable awards and good comments. Based on the American Civil War, Cold Mountain is not confined to normal depiction of the battlefield. Instead, the war serves as the backdrop, in which the theme of searching for home both physically and mentally is revealed in evidence. There is a more popular saying that this novel is like the American Odyssey with similar ordeal on the way home. This story is mainly about two lovers—Inman and Ada. Inman, a deserter of the Confederate, who once participated in the Petersburg and Fredericksburg campaigns, has become sick of warfare and is determined to return home in Cold Mountain where he can find true love and tranquility. At the same time, Ada, a well-bred, literate, over-protected daughter of a clergyman father is waiting for Inman‘s return. She is also struggling for survival after her father‘s death with the help of Ruby, an illiterate tough young woman, who is good at farming. Cold Mountain is extolled to rival Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell some decades earlier in the 20th century, both of which set the Civil War as the background. However, it is dramatically different from Gone with the Wind. Cold Mountain is based on war, but it is more of how nature and human beings have changed because of warfare and how mankind is related with the earth beneath their ground. 1 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Chapter one presents previous studies on Cold Mountain at home and abroad. As a comparatively new novel, there aren‘t quite many pieces of critical essays. Existing research mainly focus on the theme of this novel including love, the race, spiritual quest, and yearning for home etc. Only a few studies are concerned about the natural environment and its people, which provide valuable insight on my study. Chapter two first briefly introduces the development of ecocriticism. Then there is a detailed explanation of anthropocentrism, the root and core problem of the current ecological crisis, which is also the hidden reason of the outbreak of the Civil War. Next, this paper puts forward what ecologists advocate—ecological holism and eco-feminism, which is also indicated by Frazier inexplicitly through his portrayal. Chapter three utilizes the theory to reflect the imbalanced relationship between human race and nature. Alongside with the historical background, the Civil War is ultimately attributed to anthropocentrism. Through the analysis of people‘s existential crisis, the disruption of natural chain of beings and species‘ hierarchical differences, that is, women and creatures‘ inferior status verses men and humans, this paper discloses the devastating influence of the Civil War. Chapter four further demonstrates women‘s respective relationship with nature—Ada‘s adaption to nature, Ruby‘s intuition of nature and the goatwoman‘s reliance on nature. The deserters like Inman and Stobrod are also worth analyzing. Inman‘s dependence on Cold Mountain and Stobrod‘s reincarnation imply the reconciliation between man and nature. Appreciating Cold Mountain from the angle of ecocriticism and ecofeminism will shed light on the disclosure of Frazier‘s anti-anthropocentric and anti-war attitude as well as the subtle human-nature relationship. Furthermore, by addressing human-nature relationship, the paper makes people conscious of the root of environmental issues and ecological crisis as well as arouses people to inspect our deeds in order to protect our planet. 2 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 1 Literature Review 1.1 Previous Studies on Cold Mountain in China As Cold Mountain was first published in 1997, it is a fairly new book both at home and abroad. There have been only a handful of critical studies on this novel abroad, and in China, the research is even more scant. No doctoral dissertation has been found concerning any perspective on Cold Mountain, and there are only a couple of master‘s theses, each of which is comparatively new. One is to discuss its theme of humanity; another is to compare this novel with Odyssey. This kind of study on Cold Mountain is very wise and easy to handle since this novel resembles Odyssey very noticeably. In an interview Charles Frazier admitted that he reread the book before his writing and he just kept The Odyssey in the back of his mind. There are only a handful of studies on Cold Mountain at home, some of which are based on the movie version. The reviews on them are most concerned about love in war times and the search for home, which are very plain because the film is also an adaption of the novel, and it cannot 100 percent convey what the original text tries to tell us. Even so, there are several critical essays which analyze this novel from different angle using diversified theories. On the whole, the research can be divided into 2 categories. The first one is about the theme of the novel using various critical theories. Many researchers (Zi Gui 2004; Li Yuan 2005; Yang Huarong and Feng Xianguang 2005; Zhou Xiaoying 2006; Yang Daoyun 2009; Pan Xuequan 2011) believe the theme of the novel is about the war and the search for peaceful homeland. Li Yuan analyzes the artistic expression symbolism—in Cold Mountain, such as the crow, the crossroad and Inman‘s dream. In this way, Frazier conveys his attitude toward the war. Yang Huarong and Feng Xianguang (2005) discuss the negative influence of war on people‘s soul, claiming that the novel 3 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 shows readers the evilness of war and humanity‘s distortion, and at the same time, it exhibits the power of love sustaining people returning home for the tranquility in the peaceful land and mind. Zi Gui (2004) tries to explore the Chinese Poet Han Shan‘s influence of Zenism on Charles Frazier and his idea of meditation. As Han Shan‘s poet is quoted in the head page of the book, it is necessary to discuss its meaning and why it is quoted here. Zi Gui argues that Cold Mountain is actually the place for people to meditate. Zhou Xiaoying from the aspect of comparative literature tries to analyze how Cold Mountain imitates Odyssey in two ways: the story structure and the plot and characters, also it shows the different themes between the two novels. Similarly, Li Yingxing (2004) also tries to explore the double-line of the narrative structure, oncluding that this artistic feather reinforces reader‘s thought of what war will bring to c humans. Two critics see this novel from the aspect of ecocriticism and ecofeminism. Yang Daoyun (2009) suggests that it is the great love that bonds two separate lovers together in the mind despite the tragic death of one of them in the end. Using ecofeminist theory, she also concludes the harmony between women and nature. Pan Xuequan (2011) also makes a comparison of Inman‘s search for home with Odyssey‘s journey home. He adopts the eco-critical theory to explore protagonists‘ consciousness of home arguing that with the development of economy, the homeland has been spoiled, resulting from people‘s agony and agitation of physical and psychological hollowness. Yang Daoyun and Pan Xuequan‘s theories are quite new, but the latter discusses some other aspects like the great love and the narrative line of the story, which are not so closely related to ecofeminist theory; the latter merely touches what the book refers to. He only utilizes the content to speak for himself in the light of ecocriticism and even speculate the motivation of Charles Frazier‘s writing this novel, which is, in my opinion, over-subjective. The second category is to analyze the novel in the linguistic level. Li Xiaopei and Gao Dongjun (2010) adopt the method of corpus linguistics to analyze the text Cold 4 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Mountain in several aspects including the language features, theme and character portrayal, concluding that it is not only a grand epic, but also a scientific reading. Liu Yun (2010) with the assistance of pragmatics chooses some dialogues between different characters in different situations to analyze their meaning. But this paper did not concern very much with its literary value in the literary sense. The conclusion it draws is only about the usefulness of pragmatics in analyzing character‘s psychology in the conversation. 1.2 Previous Studies on Cold Mountain abroad The study from abroad is a little bit more than that in China, and the perspectives of foreign critics are more diverse. Some of them pay attention to the structure of the storytelling. Knoke Paul and Bill McCarron (1999) analyze the parallelism and antithesis in the beginning and ending of the text, claiming that this novel ―transform into a novel of peace and triumph through parallelism and antithesis. David Heddendorf (2000) analyzes the interaction between nostalgia and memory in the structure of Cold Mountain as a means of recovering the past. Some other critics focus on the spiritual part of this novel, which is related to people‘s opinion about life, death and also religious belief. Brent Gibson (2006) looks at the religious or spiritual aspect of Inman‘s journey to Cold Mountain. He puts forth that Cold Mountain is a ―narrative of quest‖ (416) and in this way he concludes that it can be neither a picaresque nor a tragedy. Cedric Gael Bryant (2009) discusses the meaning of life and death by examining Cold Mountain and the themes of burial and resurrection that permeates it. He also suggests that, among other things, life is a renewable act of burial and resurrection for each creature. There are some critics who focus on the characters of this novel. Brenda Welch (2004) analyzes the role played by the goat herder, an elderly woman whom Inman meets on his journey back to Cold Mountain. ―The old woman‘s role as an archetypal 5 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 mother-figure restores Inman to a wholeness he lacks does at the beginning‖ (7). Paul Knoke (1999) in his essay ―Symbolic Artistry in Charles Frazier‘s Cold Mountain‖ explicates the symbolism of crows in Cold Mountain, particularly as a device to develop Inman's character. He argues that although the crow bears its traditional symbolic value of ―bad,‖ Frazier invests it simultaneously with ―good‖ (9). And Inman in many ways share something in common with the crow‘s both good and bad characters. Some other critics evaluate this novel according to its geographical and historical value. John C. Inscoe (1998) analyzes the critical appeal of Cold Mountain, digging out the importance of its setting in Appalachia and its leading characters‘ relation to the landscape. He claims that ―never before in American literature has the Civil War been depicted in quite this way, nor has 19th-century Appalachia or Appalachians been rendered in fictional form in quite this way‖ (337). He regards it to be ―grounded so richly in the historical and geographic realities of the mountain South‖ (337). But another critic sees Cold Mountain with suspicious eyes. Martin Crawford (2003) evaluates Cold Mountain as a historical fiction, casting doubt on the authenticity of the depiction of the highland South during the antebellum and Civil War periods, for the sentimentality of the plot provides a contrast to the apparent historical intent of the book. Paul G. Ashdown (2000) investigates the historical facts informing the fictional narrative of Cold Mountain. He points out that Frazier makes use of the historical record in Cold Mountain but he does not necessarily fully follow it, instead he makes up some elements that are fictional. Ed Piacentino (2001) examines the portrayal of race relations in Cold Mountain, ―underscores...the novel‘s central themes: the need for cohesive community, social stability, and togetherness‖ (116). A key point of the study is the comparison of Cold Mountain and Homer‘s Odyssey. Emily A. McDermott (2004) analyzes plot parallels, in both broad and specific extent, the protagonists‘ characterizations, and the intertextuality between the epic and the novel. She argues that ―the author sets up an Inman: Odysseus, Ada: Penelope parallel but 6 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 modifies and modernizes it through vital shifts in plot and characterization‖ (19). This intertextuality is invaluable to us in enriching our appreciation of this multilayered literary tale. Elizabeth Vandiver (2004) also takes interest in this novel‘s Odyssean characteristic but tries to remind us that the end of the story is anti-odyssean. By contrasting the marital reunion at the end of The Odyssey with the irrevocable loss at the end of Cold Mountain, she points out that ―Inman‘s death in the book‘s last full chapter reworks Odyssey‘s of marital reunion into an image of irrevocable loss‖ (126). So the ending of the story is in no way optimistic. Ava Chitwood (2004) suggests that just like ―the archaic, post-Homeric Greek world produced new ways of living and thought‖ (232), Inman and Ada produced new ways of living and thought in the post-bellum world. All the above critical essays shed light on the appreciation of this novel of profound meaning. But only two papers pertain to the ecology and environment. Terry Gifford (2001) concludes in his critical essay that Frazier‘s text requires readers to ―confront some character-testing lessons located in a landscape that demands ?doing things right‘ in all its subtle senses, where readings of landscape render ecology and ethics inseparable‖ (96). Albert Way (2004) suggests that Frazier treats the environment as a character in itself, with as much influence as any other: Inman‘s struggles with an unfamiliar environment stir in him a degree of despair usually reserved for the complexities of human relationships; Ada and Ruby‘s dependence on their surroundings casts the environment in a stern maternal role as the agent of both punishment and reward. (35) Thus, it is evident that both these two scholars are concerned with the ecological sense of this novel, interpreting the characters and their behavior and mental activity with the surrounding environment. But they don‘t refer to the essence of the problem, i.e. they don‘t mention the cause and effect of war. Neither do they analyze the author‘s attitude towards war. Only by figuring out the two questions can we understand what Frazier want to express about human beings‘ relation to nature and how people should co-exist with other beings on the earth. 7 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 2 Theoretical Basis The notion of ecologism can be traced back to 19th century when romanticism was at its peak. But it was in the late 20th century people began to attach importance to it. And it was at that time that ecologism started to make sense in terms of environment. There was a great woman serving as the pioneer in environmental protection. In 1962, Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring was published. And soon it aroused dramatic repercussion among American society. The book exhibited detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment, particularly on birds. Carson asserted that uncontrolled and unexamined insecticide was threatening not only pests and birds, but also humans. The title intends to evoke a spring season in which birds no longer twittered in that they had all vanished because of pesticide abuse. Through this book, Rachel Carson made a strong and solid stance of how industrialization had a profoundly negative impact on relationship between mankind and nature, which aroused great concern including criticism of people from all walks of life. 2.1 Ecocriticism The study of ecocriticism has been a long history. Ecocriticism involves two spheres: one is the literary world, the other is the physical world. Karl Kroeber pointed out in the Ecological Literary Criticism that ―literary criticism needs to reestablish connections… especially the thinking of contemporary scientists‖ (185). So literary critics and scholars should be broadminded and consciously recognize the intense but useful relationship between mankind and nature. Glotfelty expressed his stance in The Ecocriticism Reader: ―race, class and gender were the hot topics of the late twentieth century, but you would never know that the earth‘s life support systems were under stress. Indeed, you might never know that there was an earth at all‖ (Glotfelty xix). Lawrence Buell also defined ecocriticism as ―the study of the relation between literature and environment conducted 8 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 in a spirit of commitment to environmentalist praxis‖ (430). Former critics did not reach agreement on the name of criticism concerning ecological school of thought until very recently. ―The term ecocriticism was possibly first coined in 1978 by William Rueckert in his essay ?Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism.‘ By ecocriticism Rueckert meant ―the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of literature‖ (Glotfelty xx). But this definition had not been able to arouse many scholars‘ concern until the late 1980s. ―Simply put, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment.…ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies‖(Glotfelty xviii). Actually ecocritics have many questions related to ecology in mind, and ecology per se has a broad range of inquiry. So ecocritics usually see a big picture rather than a small part in this field. All ecological criticism is based on the common ground that human civilization is connected to the physical world. They are affecting each other, interrelated. Human race used to regard the world as the society they live in. However, ecocriticism expands it to the entire ecosphere. ―we must conclude that literature does not float above the material world in some aesthetic ether, but, rather, plays a part in an immensely complex global system, in which energy, matter, and ideas interact‖ (Glotfelty xix). That is to say ecocritics take into account the land, the earth, the animals and other elements closely related to nature when appreciating the literary works. They want to explore whether the material will affect the characters‘ mental and physical behavior in it, and whether man‘s action will directly or indirectly influence the natural environment. 2.1.1 Anthropocentrism At present, a great number of philosophers attribute the ecological crisis to science and the industrialization of the western civilization. Also, current ecological philosophy holds the view that anthropocentrism is the root of all crisis, including ecological crisis, 9 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 cultural crisis, human developmental crisis and living style crisis. Adamson and Slovic believe that ―the roots of environmental movement can be traced back to the abolition movement, which revealed the connection between colonization, conquest, slavery, resource exploitation, and capital‖ (5-6). Thus, it is safe to say that environmental issue starts from human‘s ideology. Hu Zhihong (2005) deems that to completely eradicate these crises, we need to cast away the anthropocentrism. Rachel Carson is the first eco-literary writer who criticizes anthropocentrism. She argues that the reason why humans treat nature unscrupulously is that anthropocentrism had governed our way of thinking for thousands of years. So what is anthropocentrism? It is a belief that mankind is the only creature in the world that has intrinsic values. Accordingly, nature is considered as only a means of existence that is at the disposal of human beings. It embraces the idea that human beings is the center of the world, in other words, we humans play the dominant role in human-nature relationship. Actually, the origin of anthropocentrism is Bible. Lynn White, Jr. challenged anthropocentrism in his essay ―The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis‖, arguing that ―modern western science was cast in a matrix of Christian theology‖(9), as in Genesis human beings regard themselves as the master of nature, where everything is subject to mankind. ―What people do about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them. Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny—that is, by religion‖ (9). By this, Lynn White tries to tell us that mankind has been instilled by religious thoughts which guide us how to behave in this world and how to live and change the world. Our daily habitual actions, despite other non-religious factors, is somewhat influenced by Judeo-Christian teleology. He claims that just as is shown in Bible, God created everything from light to plants, birds and finally Adam and Eve. By naming all the animals, man established his superiority to nature. Therefore, ―no item in the physical creation had any purpose save to serve man‘s purposes‖ (White 9). And White asserts 10 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 that Christianity is the most anthropocentric religion the world has seen, because Man shares God‘s transcendence of nature. Consequently, Christianity established a dualism of man and nature. Moreover, ―it is God‘s will that man exploit nature for his proper ends‖ (White 10). Speaking of nature, White believes that since God made nature, nature also must reveal the divine mentality just like Bible, the Book of Scripture was given by God. Bible expresses the notion that ―nature was conceived primarily as a symbolic system through which God speaks to men: the ant is a sermon to sluggards; rising flames are the symbol of the soul‘s aspiration‖ (White 11). When it comes to science and technology, White puts forth an idea that modern science is an extrapolation of natural theology and more than one hundred years ago science and technology, previously quite separate, joined to grant mankind powers, which are out of control according to the ecologic effects. He doubted that tragic ecologic backlash can be shunned simply by applying more science and technology to solve the problems. Human beings regarded themselves as superior to nature, so they are contemptuous of nature, willing to use it for their slightest whim. The environmental crisis has been noted by Arnold Toynbee in his Mankind and Mother Earth saying that our present biosphere is the only habitable space we have, or are ever likely to have, that mankind now has the power to ―make the biosphere uninhabitable, and … produce this suicidal result within a foreseeable period of time ‖ (9). Glen A. Love also expresses his opinion about anthropocentrism in his paper ―Revaluing Nature toward an ecological criticism‖ that The catalogue of actual and potential horrors is by now familiar to us all: the threats of nuclear holocaust, or of slower radiation poisoning, of chemical or germ warfare….The doomsday potentialities are so real and so profoundly important that a ritual chanting of them ought to replace the various nationalistic and spiritual incantations with which we succor ourselves. But rather than confronting these ecological issues, we prefer to think on other things. (225-226) 11 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Glen A. Love points out that our society as a whole has been faced with three crises in the last thirty years: civil rights, women‘s liberation, and environmental degradation. But curiously enough, humanity has failed to respond to the issue of the environmental crisis in any significant way. People are reluctant to acknowledgement their place within the natural world and our need to live heedfully within it. The reason why we show little unconcern of this issue is that in this area the problem-solving strategies of the past just go in vain. It is a truth that humans have become accustomed to living with crises and to surviving them, or to resolving them in a way with comparatively little harm to business as usual. Glen A. Love also explains that humans care about these issues, but they don‘t care enough. They always take other things as priority than environment, and they have never attached enough importance to it. He argues that It is one of the great mistaken ideas of anthropocentric thinking, and thus one of the cosmic ironies, that society is complex while nature is simple….that literature in which nature plays a significant role is, by definition, irrelevant and inconsequential. That nature is dull and uninteresting while society is sophisticated and interesting. (230) In other words, bounded by anthropocentrism, humanity regards nature as boring and dull, showing little interest in this secondary issue. On the contrary, as humans are increasingly socialized and detached with nature in recent millennia, they are more concerned with literary world, which is more sophisticated, thus attracts more humans‘ attention. 2.1.2 Ecological holism A theory totally against anthropocentrism is ecological holism, and it is the core of ecology. To relieve and eliminate ecological crisis eventually, we humans should abandon the obsolescent dogma of anthropocentrism and no longer regard human as the 12 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 core of nature. Instead, ―we should take into account the benefit of the whole ecological system, and in so doing restrain our development to some extent‖ (Wang Nuo 7). Simply put, there is no center at all. So we human beings should base the entire individual creature‘s development on the benefit of the whole family. The interest of ecosystem, rather than those of mankind should be considered as supreme. Some western scholars regard ecological holism as ecocentrism, an idea of environmental ethics, claiming that ―the interest of biosphere is prior to the interest of individual species‖ (Buell 151). But this idea is not so accurate according to Wang Nuo. As the premise of ecological holism is decentralization, ecological holism emphasized the stance that the system as a whole is the most important. It lays stress on the interrelationship of each part and the whole itself instead of seeing some part as the core. Aldo Leopold states in A Sand County Almanac his concept of the community that ―the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts‖ (189). Seen from the historical context, human race is only a member of a biotic sphere. The influence of land on history by virtue of its characteristics is as potent as the influence of humanity by virtue of his characteristics. Leopold introduces a term in his essay ―The Land Pyramid‖ called biotic pyramid, where plants absorb solar energy. ―This energy flows through a circuit called the biota, which may be represented by a pyramid consisting of layers‖ (198). And the pyramid composed of a tangle of chains is so complex that it may seem disorderly, but ―the stability of the system proves it to be a highly organized structure‖ (199). The structure can resist human‘s harm to a certain extent by readjusting itself, but not endlessly. Definitely, mankind has exerted a huge influence on our ecosystem. Therefore, the less violent the man-made changes to the bio-pyramid, the more probable the readjustment in the pyramid (203). In a book review of Buell‘s The Environmental Imagination, Leonard presents the idea that 13 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 In some ways, the rise of our collective awareness of environmental crisis has occurred not because we have found better ways of imagining nature, and far less because we wish to find them, but because our old ways, despite our best efforts to ignore this, are becoming increasingly untenable. (170) So Buell and Glen A. Love are not the minority who believe that humans ignore environmental crisis, and that the old views of nature is groundless. With similar view of ecosystem, Holmes Rolston expresses his notion of ecological ethics that as a species, humanity should coordinate with the surrounding and make use of the abundant resources to promote the natural recycle rather than damage it—water recycling, energy flow and material transition, which make possible the living things. Also he believes that failing to do that is because of the modern science and technology. In primitive society, humans only did damage to nature in a very small range with minor negative effect, but the advent of science and technology changes everything. 2.2 Ecofeminism Another theory this paper will apply is ecofeminism, which came into being in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was coined by Francoise d‘Eaubonne in her work Le Feminism ou La Mort. For the first time, she bridged the gap between women and nature, hence the theory of ecofeminism. Ecofeminism combines both the factors of the feminist and green movements. ―It takes from the green movement a concern about the impact of human activities on the non-human world and from feminism the view of humanity as gendered in ways that subordinate, exploit and oppress women‖ (Mellor 1). ―Ecofeminism is founded on the basic intuition that there is a fundamental connection in western culture, and in patriarchal cultures generally between the domination of women and the domination of nature, both culturally/ symbolically and socioeconomically‖ (Ruether 229). Moreover, ecofeminism argues against androcentric dualism of 14 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 man/woman. This dualism ―distinguishes men from women on the grounds of some alleged quality such as larger brain size, and then assumes that this distinction confers superiority upon men‖ (Garrard 23). In terms of philosophy, ecofeminism is an ―embodied materialism‖ determined by her own feature. ―Its purpose is to subvert the European tradition that places men above women and nature‖ (Salleh ix), and replaces this tradition with a dialectics advocating holism. It is in the Europocentric society that women are marginalized and degraded and devalued in the eyes of men. It is the combination of ecocriticism and feminism as well. On the other hand, it transcends the two theories. Overall, with the purpose of uncovering the relationship of the depreciation of women and nature in humans‘ mind and the society, ecofeminism votes against anthropocentrism and androcentrism, it advocates establishing the harmonious man-woman and human-nature relationship. According to Li Yinhe, the main ideas of ecofeminism are as follows: First, women are closer to nature, while men are generally against nature. Second, the creatures on the earth compose an interrelated network, in which no one excels others. And this point corresponds well to the ecological holism as I mentioned previously. Third, the co-existence of all species makes us realize that it is necessary to understand human-nature relationship, which also challenges the idea of binary opposition. New as the above two theory might be, they are quite significant in interpreting what Charles Frazier want to express. After all, his anti-war fiction contains complicated human-nature relationship. When looking at Cold Mountain from the perspective of ecocriticism and ecofeminism, we may find out how deeply humans are bonded with nature, how men and women are equal parts of nature, and how nature and human can co-exist in our earth. Meanwhile, jumping out of the text itself, we may broaden our scope to see the philosophical value in this novel. Seeing Cold Mountain in an ecocritical way also contributes to the future discussion on other works at home and abroad with an open and novel perspective. As has been 15 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 mentioned above, critics used to see literary works in the literary circle. They always lay stress on the theme, the culture, the religious belief of the work, but it is time they got rid of these old points and showed some concern about nature. After all, at present, the consciousness of nature has become increasingly important. If critics are able to sense the ecological view in literary works, they can inspire readers with similar sense and people in growing numbers will introspect what they have done to nature. Finally people will relate their deeds to nature and care more about the earth. 16 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 3 Reflections on the Imbalanced Human-Nature Relationship A major motif of the novel is the severe impact the war exerts on nature and people. Before the war takes place, people are living a carefree life in their beautiful homeland. However, everything has changed since the war takes place. Men are drafted into the army without being fully conscious of their enemy; women are left behind home to take care of the home front. The serene homeland is gone and everywhere it takes on a bleak view: animals and plants cannot grow healthily; living beings die from diseases every day. The balance between mankind and nature is disrupted. This chapter will interpret the cause and effect of the war from a different perspective. 3.1 Reinterpretation of the Civil War Previous interpretation of the Civil War mainly focuses on what the cause and effect of the war are, how the war composes of the history and why patriotism needs to be advocated. Nonetheless, this paper tries to discuss the other side of the war, i.e. how human beings has been too egocentric or anthropocentric to wage war on their enemies and how the war exerts negative influence on the earth as well as Frazier‘s attitude to the war. 3.1.1 Reflection on the cause of the Civil War: anthropocentrism The Civil War lasted from the year 1861 to 1865, resulting in more than six hundred thousand casualties. It is generally acknowledged that the real cause is the tensions formed early in the nation‘s history. The most noticeable one is the disparity of two economies. In the south, a number of plantations grew a large amount of crops such as cotton, which means numerous slaves needed to help slaveholders with the farming. On the other hand, the northern economy was based more on industry than agriculture. In 17 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 other words, the south largely consisting of small and large plantations was labor intensive, whereas the north was more of a manufacturing center, using raw materials to create finished goods. So the disparity of economy leads to the discrepancy of northern people‘s value and that of southern people, which unavoidably caused clashes between these two groups of people. Another factor is that people have different attitudes toward government. There are those arguing for greater rights for each state and those arguing for federal government needing more control and power. Finally, a most huge disparity is about whether slavery should be abolished. It had been abolished in the north but continued in the south because of the demand for inexpensive labor and the ingrained culture of plantation. As new states were added to the United States, compromises had to be reached pertaining to whether they would be admitted as slave or free states. Conceivably, both the north and the south feared that the other side would garner more unequal power, as they outnumber the other side. Consequently, these clashes eventually lead to the war. Six hundred twenty thousand soldiers died in the American Civil War. This figure surpasses the combined total of American dead from all other wars through Vietnam….Ten percent of all Northern males 20–45 years of age died, as did 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40 (John Huddleston 3) As is evident in this event, human beings focus so much on their interest, value, beliefs that they would wage war to solve the problem regardless of what other people would suffer and how the surrounding environment would be affected. Such a great many young people have sacrificed and so many innocent people have been killed. It is well known that anthropocentrism is considered as the root of all crises. Frazier is quite aware of the devastation of war when he is writing the novel. He gives a full annotation by depicting the soldiers who serve as the scapegoat of the interest groups and emphasizing the disillusionment of the marginalized small roles in the novel to denounce 18 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 the dominant role of humans in human-nature relationship. There are altogether twenty chapters in Cold Mountain whereas there is only one chapter—the first chapter—presenting readers the description of how soldiers are killed in the battle, how they suffer the pain of the wound and how people witnessed a life‘s death with their own eyes. On the contrary, the remaining part deals with only small roles: veterans, women, home guard, but not men in high ranks, in which one is after another, and one is always trying to get rid of the others. By unveiling the real life of grassroots roles, Frazier enables readers to get familiar with every facets of the war, from the usually chosen high rankers to the unknown soldiers. As people are commonly accustomed with brilliant majors and generals with valorous strategies, there‘s no doubt that Frazier would depict survival and inner mind including their own view of the more on the grassroots warriors‘ war fever. After all, it is the soldiers who fight valiantly and desperately against the foes. The war depicted here is indeed very different from the war… which Robert E. Lee experienced. There are few if any plantations, slaveholders, or slaves on this home front. The many characters who people Frazier‘s saga are far removed from those who make up Margaret Mitchell‘s or John Jake‘s fictionalized confederacy. With very few exceptions, these people are poor, leading live of quiet—and often not so quiet—desperation. For all participations, the war has become one of disillusionment, of resentment, of desolation, and of brutality as they engage in a primal quest for sheer survival. (Inscoe 333) Inscoe points out that the characters in Cold Mountain are more often than not the ordinary people at the base of the society with lower living standards and lower hierarchy. Once a war befalls them, they are the first to be implicated without any resistance. The reasons why Frazier uses more inks on these people is his own disillusionment of the war and his consciousness of the impact of anthropocentrism. 19 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 I reckon many of us fought to drive off invaders. One man I knew had been north to the big cities, and he said it was every feature of such places that we were fighting to prevent. All I know is anyone thinking the Federals are willing to die to set loose slaves has got an overly merciful view of mankind. (275) The above words are from Inman to a goatwoman, who lives in the mountains raising goats. He says it in a very ironic way, for it appears that the Federate soldiers are fighting for the emancipation of the slaves, and the Confederate soldiers are fighting for fending off the invaders of their homeland. In fact, nonetheless, when people are literally involved in the war, these so-called sublime purposes will most probably give way to the reason of fending off invasion or the loathing for people with different perspectives. Worse still, most conscripts take part into the war only because they are lured by demagogues who instigate them to fight for the liberty of every man and to free the southern America regardless of the price they would pay. Not until the unexpected torture in the battle field do they figure out the reality of warfare. It is after witnessing the brutal slaughter of innocent soldiers that they become disillusioned with war. And it is just because humans only care something ideological rather than envision the possible aftermath of warfare that people and the homeland, soldiers, civilians and their environment are victimized by the war. This anthropocentrism is what Frazier absolutely against and directly or indirectly shown in his novel. 3.1.2 Reflection on the effect of the Civil War: existential crisis From the title of this novel, ―COLD MOUNTAIN‖, we can speculate that the effect of the Civil War is by no means positive. On the whole, the existential crisis resulted from war can be analyzed from two aspects, namely, first materially, and second spiritually. The most strikingly material crisis is the lack of food, both embodied in the survival crisis of men and women. 20 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Inman‘s journey is a convincing case in this sense. Food shortage accounts for the horror and insecurity of Inman‘s journey home. If every adult labor is drafted in the army, the left ones, the disabled and the old, are not so capable of growing crops in the field or taking care of the farming as the strong ones in peaceful time. Actually, the people at the home front are almost women and aged people. There is no wonder growing food would be a challenging task for them. As all the farm land is taking on a bleak view across the country, the lack of food is a primary concern for all people, including soldiers and deserters. Actually, all the way home, Inman has not eaten much except for a couple of meals offered by warm-hearted people. Usually, he has no one to turn to but to rely on any food he could find. His haversack became empty of food. At first he hunted, but the high balsam woods seemed abandoned by game. Then he tried grabbling for crawfish to boil, but found that he worked for hours to catch enough to fill the crown of his hat, and then after eating them he felt he had gained little by it. (299) The description shows his difficult getting enough crawfish. Failing to find any animals to hunt, he has to catch shrimps to boil them, which turn out to be insufficient for a regular meal. This is only one aspect of survival crisis caused by food shortage. Food shortage leads to another fact that Inman has to be alert to people, who also care a lot about food. In fact, Inman‘s chance of meeting good guys is on God‘s humor, as any strangers are unpredictable. If they are kind-hearted, such as Sara and the goatwoman, Inman will have a good meal to make up for the starvation. If, unfortunately, they turn out to be evil guy such as Junior with ulterior purpose, he is in jeopardy. There is a general speculation that Junior is likely to kill the passers-by to feed on themselves, as the oil and the meat Inman eats are not as usual. To be more specific, Junior‘s turning him in to the home guard is also out of the fear of the bullying home guard, who will punish the one harboring the deserters. And if they turn in any deserters, they will 21 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 certainly benefit from it, for example, food, the most valuable means of existence at war time. As has been mentioned previously, the war exerts a huge impact on women at home land due to the food shortage as well as a huge demand of products in the market, therefore leading to inflation. Take Ada for instance. She is in no better condition than Inman is. As a well-bred fairy lady, she is not used to living on her own after father‘s death, not capable of doing farm work. All she can do is counting the days in a negative way, and she always lives in memory of her father. Because she is a bit shy, she has rejected many people‘s visit to her. Sometimes she turns to the Swangers for help, but that won‘t solve the problem. Long before Ruby comes to help Ada, the farm in front of Ada‘s house is dramatically desolate in that the servants are either enlisted in the army or flee away. the beans and squash and tomatoes bore vegetables hardly bigger than her thumb despite the fullness of the growing season. Many of the leaves were eaten away to their veins by bugs and worms. Standing thick in the rows and towering over the vegetables were weeds…Beyond the failed garden stretched the old cornfield, now grown up shoulder high in poke and sumac. (28) As can be seen from the above description, the farm in front of Ada‘s house cannot be even more desolated. As Ada is raised to be a fairy lady, she cannot take care of the farm after her father, a preacher‘s death. At first, not long before his father passes away, she is at a loss as how to deal with the land beneath her hands. The land becomes so bleak that even the eggs taste strange since ―the hens‘ diet had changed from table scraps to bugs‖ (28). This is only an example of so many families alike. When the large proportion of family cannot grow food or produce goods, and the need for them keeps increasing, thus the inflation comes into being. So Ruby and Ada would once in a while go to town to barter some goods rather than using money to buy things. The inflation has resulted in 22 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 devaluated currency and ungrounded high price of goods, which render people being on edge. In this sense, Ada and other women are also in a predicament both physically and psychologically on account of the food shortage. Furthermore, the Civil War reinforces the patriarchal culture in which women and animals are bullied by men and marginalized deserters‘ destiny is always unpredictable. This is the spiritual aspect of existential crisis. Throughout the novel, readers are overwhelmingly impressed with the fact that the balance between men and nature has been undermined ever since the Civil War broke out. Whether it is between men and women or men and nature, they are in unequal places, where the former always gains the upper hand. It is like the world is lopsided and the energy is sliding to the dominating side. The natural chain of beings is actually metaphorical, which refers to a great number of hierarchical links, from the most basic and foundational elements up to the very highest perfection—God. Human beings are beneath God and angels. But now ever since mankind takes the lead, he has broken the chain of being, resulting in other living things being impinged. In the human circle, women are always in the second place. For example, Ruby is abandoned since 10 years old by her father, even when she was very young, her father seldom took care of her. She has to live on her own when she is able to walk, so at very little age, she would beg for food from other families along the river. Even Ada, whose father cherishes her very much, does not allow her to do work even a little related to labor. She is only excellent at arts and literature, but when it comes to physical work, she is absolutely poor at it. The hidden reason is that in her father‘s opinion, women are fragile and men are strong. As a result, women are taken care of, just like fairy ladies. But in war time, women‘s inferiority to men is reinforced. Sara is a good case in point. She is an 18-year-old mother of a baby girl, widow of John, a soldier who dies in battle, never being able to see his child. She takes Inman on a frosty night, offering him food and the cloth of John, doing his laundry and telling her tale of woe. She is a 23 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 self-sufficient girl by taking a push plow to lay out a little patch of corn and a kitchen garden. She has also got a tub mill to grind up the corn in. The raiders once took her cow away in the summer and burnt down the barn. When Inman gets to know how Sara is leading a tough life all by herself, he believes that she will get much older in just five years, and he deems her life as something ―he could step right into and keep working at hard from tonight till death‖ (305). It is in such condition that Sara is leading a bitter life but still wants to pull it through. But the next day, 3 Federals come to Sara‘s hut to search for food. They terrorize her by lashing her to a post and laying her baby on the frozen ground as they search for treasures. Finding nothing, they release her but steal her hog and chickens. The man with the pistol went to her and told her to sit on the ground and she did. The hog reclined on the ground beside her.…From the house came sounds of clash and breakage. When the two inside reappeared, one of them carried the baby by a fold in its swaddling as one would carry a satchel. (312) After a while, the three federals take away Sara‘s three hens and a hog, which mean a lot to Sara, who begs them crying out aloud. But the three soldiers with no mercy at all just ignore her and leave with the ―war trophy.‖ The reason why soldiers from the Union army bully Sara and her baby is that they are stronger with weapons while Sara only has her scant means of existence. These raiders are actually weak too, almost starving for death, but they take the only advantage of being masculine to bully the even weaker ones—women and kids. If the world is at peace, then men and women will live in harmony. However, it is not the case during the war fever when the natural chain of being is broken. Consequently, men will snatch what women have so that they can survive, regardless of whether women will survive or not. So we can detect that every broken link of the chain will lead to the next one, the women, the kids, the animals, and the plants or produce like corns. 24 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 In the aspect of animals, there was a case worth discussing. When Inman is heading west home, he encounters a sow bear that tries to protect her baby bear. He swears that he would not kill a bear for there was something hopeful he could expect from it. But as he has only three feet at the cliff, he has to protect himself first by taking a step sideway to dodge the sow bear, which rushes off the cliff and dies. Then when he sees the little bear, he at first wants to put it in his backsack and brings it to Ada as a gift. But then he has a second thought that ―the cub in the fir bawled out in its anguish. It was not even yet a weanling and would wither and die without a mother. It would wail away for days until it starved or was eaten by wolf or panther‖ (353). Thinking that the little bear will in the end disappear in the chain miserably, he shot the cub in the head so as to cook the bear to eat. On the one hand, he just wants the cub to have a quicker doomsday. On the other hand, for the sake of survival, he competes with the cub and surely he wins. He had not eaten bear of such youth before, and though the meat was less black and greasy than that of older bear, it still tasted nevertheless like sin. He tried to name which of the deadly seven might apply, and when he failed he decided to append an eighth, regret. (356) Since childhood he has decided not to eat bear‘s meat by virtue of some connection he believes with bears. This time, at the cliff, he meets an sow bear that misunderstands his intention of getting out of their way, and by poor calculation, the mother bear‘s feint lead her off the precipice, leaving the cub alone, defenseless. Regretful as he is, he still opts to kill the bear to let him survive. These two bears should pose no threat to Inman, actually, however, to ensure his safety, he has to kill the bear to ensure himself stay in the chain of beings. In doing so, he breaks the vow to the bear and that‘s why under such dangerous circumstances, animals are inferior to mankind in this sense. But this also reveals that marginalized deserters have no other way out. If they do not eat the animals 25 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 they would die. From the above analysis, the consequence of war is that the world‘s natural chain of beings is disrupted. Everything is dislocated, and nothing is functioning well. The shortage of food leads to a series of disaster to all creatures. Everywhere, no matter at battlefields or at home front, men are not guaranteed of food, and women are bullied by men for food. Also, animals are at the risk of being killed by men for the sake of their survival. War‘s negative impact will be further explained from the author‘s ecological awareness. 3.2 Charles Frazier’s Ecological Awareness So far we are able to speculate that Frazier‘s ecological awareness is quite obvious. Careful readers can find out that it is revealed throughout the novel. From how he composes the story to the text of the story, including the mocking of the generals and the portrayal of land, his strong ecological awareness is exposed to us all. First, in terms of the composition of the story, some critics regard Cold Mountain as Odyssey. Frazier admits that he reread Odyssey before he embarks on this similar to novel, but he refuses to imitate it and regard that to be superficial. He doesn‘t want to write novels about wars, neither. What he wants to highlight is his aversion of war. ―Once I decided that I was writing an Odyssey kind of book…, I could move forward with it with some sense of happiness‖ (interview). It is safe to say that Cold Mountain transcends the traditional journey of the hero warriors. As is obvious in Cold Mountain, the story is about how people try to get away from the war to their peaceful homeland, and indeed Charles Frazier does not focus on the overwhelming battles of warriors fighting against their foes. Instead, he attaches more importance to how the warfare dealt a huge blow to people spiritually and physically. He also lays stress on the relationship between human and nature by foregrounding the change of the protagonists to struggle for peace and salvation. This explicitly reflects his ecological thoughts in this novel. 26 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 The first sign that reveals the author‘s anti-anthropocentric attitude is a quote by Darwin in the head page of this book clearly. ―It is difficult to believe in the dreadful but quiet war of organic beings, going on in the peaceful woods, & smiling fields.‖ Darwin‘s words can never be too suitable here. Quite apparently, this sentence is of profound meaning, implying what is going to happen in this novel. What are the organic beings, where is the fighting and what are the peaceful woods and smiling fields? There is no doubt that the organic beings are nothing but human beings, the war refers to the civil war, and the peaceful woods and smiling fields are the natural land. It is sardonic that the war is not just what it appears. The story is based on what Frazier‘s father told him about one of his ancestors, his great great uncle and his great grandfather. It was actually only a few paragraphs. They both volunteered in the first few months of the Civil War, but then wanted to go back home. Frazier says in an interview: ―This Inman was in some of the worst fighting of the As there were few war. He was in Virginia and was in many battles in key positions.‖ letters from them, so Frazier just made up the most of the novel. What he knows is his family background, when he joined the war, when he was wounded, when he fled away from the war and what happened to him when he got there. Apart from that, Frazier has to fill the story with his imagination. However, readers can detect that Frazier‘s imaginary work does not lay stress on the war fever part; instead, he concentrates more on his ancestors‘ stance of the war. ―A warrior, weary of war, trying to get home and facing all kinds of impediments along the way, a woman at home beset by all kinds of problems of her own that are as compelling as his‖ (interview). Cold Mountain‘s story line just accords with it. The reason why Frazier chooses this is probably that he regards the war as a terrible calamity involving too many people and living beings, as well as the homeland. They all have been alienated by war to some extent. So he chooses not to write a history-like novel praising big man like generals. And Frazier just understates them with a bit irony. 27 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Lee and Longstreet and befeathered Stuart stood right there on the lawn before the porch, taking turns glassing the far side of the river and talking. Longstreet had a grey shawl of wool draped about his shoulders. Compared to the other two men, Longstreet looked like a stout hog drover. (9-10) From this brief description of the 3 generals, we can see that they do not participate in the war in person, only having to stay in the back making orders. Longstreet is even mocked to be like a hog drover. And that is a general in the eyes of the author. This is rather satiric. It is widely accepted that big men in military should be descripted as grave and noble, but here they are debased as someone looked down upon. Another few sentence can be more evident. They had fought throughout the day under the eyes of Lee and Longstreet. The men behind the wall had only to crank their necks around and there the big men were, right above them looking on. The two generals spent the afternoon up on the hill coining fine phrases like a pair of wags. (12) Again, when warriors are killing or being killed in the battlefield, these big men only need to stay in the home front to say whatever they like, without making the risk of their lives. It is their underlings that are painstakingly devote themselves in protecting their home and fending off the enemy. In contrast, generals are just saying something nice or hollow. One of them even thinks that ―battle—among all acts man might commit—stood outranked in sacredness only by prayer and Bible reading‖(12). In the author‘s perspective, these big men launched the war, but make other pay the big price—their lives, their homeland. These generals reckon the war as nearly as sacred as Bible, and the author commented this using Inman‘s inner thinking: ―following such logic would soon lead one to declare the victor of every brawl and dogfight as God‘s certified champion‖ (12). So Frazier just want to satirize this viewpoint that war could be regarded as sacred 28 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 and victors would be praised, disregarding the huge price every one pay for the war. Charles Frazier also noted that this war wasn‘t Inman‘s fight. ―One of the tragedies of the war to me was that those people got caught up, caught in the crossfire of this war. Many of them died fighting somebody else‘s battle‖ (Frazier interview). The same is true of Inman. As a matter of fact, Inman does not own slaves and very few people around him do. Merely about seven or eight percent of people in southern American own slaves. Southern fellows take part in the war because they think they are going to repel northern people‘s invasion of their homeland. Therefore, it can be deduced that Frazier feels pity about so many innocent people who are forced or called upon by others influential to be recruited to the war, only to be killed by the enemy with the same goal. Whether one side is just for the war or not, the slaughter is inevitable, cruel and devastating. The death of soldiers is a great loss no matter to their beloved ones or to the country as a whole. In the first chapter in which Inman is wounded in hospital, he sees a man killing a group of wounded Federals, the foes with a hammer. In the meantime, the man whistles to himself. It seems as if he enjoys the slaughter. So this man is definitely alienated by war fever. the man moved briskly down the row, making a clear effort to let one strike apiece do. Not angry, just moving from one to one like a man with a job of work to get done….Inman would always remember that, as the man came to the end of the row, the first light of dawn came up on his face. (14) From this last sentence, readers can sense a strong sarcasm by Frazier. The killer is killing the wounded enemies just like a machine, without feeling sorry for the loss of lives. And when he kills the last man, his face meets the first light. Such an evil man is in such a shiny circumstance, so the contrast is to imply readers that en evil and monstrous man should be enlightened by receiving the first beam of sunshine. Also, it implies that there are thousands of soldiers similar to this killer, numbed by the warfare, just 29 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 conducting what generals tell them to do, showing no respect for the lives of human beings as well as other living beings. On the other hand, the novel has been full of portrayal of land. On the whole, the place stricken by the war is either desolated or ominous, but the place of Cold Mountain is always pleasant and yearning. As it is the place damaged by human warfare, it is usually terrible. ―Though we see little military action, there are constant reminders that the landscape that each protagonist negotiates is in a state of late-war upheaval‖ (Way 34). the river stretched wide before him, a shit-brown clog to his passage. As a liquid, it bore likeness more to molasses as it first thickens in the making than to water. He wished never to become accustomed to this sorry make of waterway. It did not even fit his picture of a river. Where he was from, the word river meant rocks and moss and the sound of whitewater moving fast under the spell of a great deal of collected gravity. Not a river in his whole territory was wider than you could pitch a stick across, and in every one of them you could see bottom wherever you looked. (84) The paragraph shows the sharp contrast between the polluted area often by fight and the place away from war fever. At home, the river is so clean and people can see the water flowing merrily while the water Inman comes across is so foul that he wants to flee away. This is implied by the author that human beings ignore that they harm the environment when they are in battle. The battleground is at their disposal, and whether it will be polluted or not is not their concern. In sharp contrast, the homeland where Inman belongs is substantially fascinating and charming. When Inman is close to home, he overlooks the Rule Ridge with hope and delighted mood. Bleak as the scene was, though, there was growing joy in Inman's heart. He was nearing home; he could feel it in the touch of thin air on skin, in his longing 30 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 to see the leap of hearth smoke from the houses of people he had known all his life. People he would not be called upon to hate or fear. He rose and took a wide stance on the rock and stood and pinched down his eyes to sharpen the view across the vast prospect to one far mountain. It stood apart from the sky only as the stroke of a poorly inked pen, a line thin and quick and gestural. But the shape slowly grew plain and unmistakable. It was to Cold Mountain he looked. He had achieved a vista of what for him was homeland. (355) This is a land that has not been spoiled by the Civil War. The hometown fellows are kind, holding no grudges to each other, and even the air is familiar to Inman and the hearth smoke could be so bouncy. The land seen from the distance may not be clear, but Inman is pretty sure of his home. Why the people and the land are so different from what Inman encounters during his way back home? That‘s because his home is miles away from the battlefield. It is not stricken by the warfare. ―the beautifully wrought landscape of the Appalachian Mountains is more than simply a setting; the mountains ultimately serve as a symbol of return and rest, spiritual and physical, a separate world to which Ada and Inman aspire‖ (Chitwood 233). Moreover, apart from reminding readers that the pure place is to be longed for, Frazier highlights that the ravaged battle ground by contrast is so foul that it is to be disgusted and at the same time, to be sympathized. When people are sorry for desolated native land, they will usually long for paradise. Not only once has the author mentioned some other places. The places are usually depicted as supernatural, usually not seen by common people but native Indians, or aborigines. These people are fundamentally different from Inman or other people as they are the invaders, in terms of the native people. The first sacred place is told by a Cherokee swimmer Inman got to know when he was sixteen. There was a Cherokee swimmer who tells Inman: 31 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 above the blue vault of heaven there was a forest inhabited by a celestial race. Men could not go there to stay and live, but in that high land the dead spirit could be reborn. Swimmer described it as a far and inaccessible region, but he said the highest mountains lifted their dark summits into its lower reaches. Signs and wonders both large and small did sometimes make transit from that world to our own. Animals, Swimmer said, were its primary messengers. (23) At first, Inman does not believe completely, but when he flees away from the hospital, he keeps thinking about the celestial place, because the world he witnesses has become so grimy. Under that circumstance, ―he no longer thought of that world as heaven, nor did he still think that we get to go there when we die. Those teachings had been burned away‖ (23). Looking at the current world, he regards it as ―so frequently foul‖ (23). so ―he held to the idea of another world, a better place, and he figured he (23). might as well consider Cold Mountain to be the location of it as anywhere‖ This other world is not just a religious one. Actually, in the abovementioned interview, Frazier expressed his notion to ―create a sense of otherness, of another world, one that the reader doesn't entirely know.‖ This is fairly natural if the balance of current world is broken, one always wants to seek another world. Another land called Shining Rock is also told by a snake woman. Our land is not altogether like yours. Here is constant fighting, sickness, foes wherever you turn. And soon a stronger enemy than you have yet faced will come and take your country away from you and leave you exiles. But there we have peace. And though we die as all men do and must struggle for our food, we need not think of danger. Our minds are not filled with fear. We do not endlessly contend with each other. (250-251) When the villagers went there, the woman‘s prophecy comes true: the place is indeed invaded by northern enemy, and the people are rendered homeless and the natural landscape is spoiled. Frazier every once in a while inserting us another world always ideal and holly is actually implying us that the protagonists as well as the author himself 32 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 are longing for a paradise, or hope the land we live in can be free of mankind‘s havoc. Moreover, the people who tells the tales always own an identity extremely different from other ordinary people, they either are the aborigines or from the remote places. The reason why Frazier grants them the special power is that common people are earthly and mundane, and they are easily obsessed with affairs like what beliefs they uphold, what values they cherish and what tradition they keep. Once their interest or beliefs are profaned, they would wage war to seize back their possession or to prove they are right and others are wrong, totally overlooking something bigger. They fail to see a big picture in which the motherland is all they have. Any wars occurring on the earth would do damage to nature, the people, and the living beings. From the above analysis, people in the war are alienated. Those who deeply involved in the battle, for instance, the generals and butchers, cannot have an objective attitude toward war. And the deserters are always disillusioned by the war. Also, the land plays different role in different people‘s eyes. For urban people, it is detached and abstract, while for rural fellows, including Inman and Ruby, it is productive and pragmatic. However, above all, when in war time, the land is the first to be plundered, just because of humans‘ egotism or anthropocentrism. Therefore through grand portrayal of bleak land, beautiful land and magic land, Frazier ecological awareness is evident to readers. Because of man‘s anthropocentrism, they ignore the destructive effect brought about by the war, so Frazier is grieved about the land and its living beings being pillaged by mankind. 33 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 4 Reconstruction of a Harmonious Human-Nature Relationship The human-nature relationship so far has been unpleasant. And Frazier will not let go of it. Instead, he has created quite a handful of characters including leading characters such as Ada and Ruby as well as supporting characters such as the Swanger couple, who survive by depending on nature. At the same time, two soldiers feel disillusioned and became deserters after participating in the war. So the implications of these images subtly reveal Frazier‘s intention to remedy the imbalanced situation and appeal for harmonious relationship between human race and nature. This chapter will choose five leading characters to prove how different people regardless of gender reconciliate with nature. 4.1 Women’s Affinity with Nature The scene of men with nature in this novel has been bitter and painful, but the view of women should be quite the opposite, i.e. they have a dramatically harmonious relationship with nature, which corresponds with the ecofeminism‘s belief that women are more closely related to nature. The three women—Ada, Ruby and the goatwoman have different personalities, divergent background and experience, but all of them together confirm the ecofeminism theory. 4.1.1 Ada’s adaption to nature Of the three women, Ada is the one most estranged from nature at first. She is the daughter of a protective and widowed Charleston preacher, Monroe, who moves to Cold Mountain with Ada. Monroe hires some servants to take care of the farm while he can preach in the parish. The farm is the only thing that Monroe leaves to Ada when he dies in a stormy afternoon. Ada is everything a well-brought up girl should be. She can talk 34 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 about farming in Latin, she can read French, she knows how to lace up a corset, and she can name the principle river in Europe. Yet she cannot name any stream in Cold Mountain. She can embroider but cannot darn; she can arrange cut flowers but cannot grow them. Anything that produces function is not considered as suitable to her. So deep inside her heart, she also regards city convention as unnatural and somewhat repels it a little, so she has refused many genteel courts. Away from the rural landscape, Ada and Monroe do not develop any practical ability to live on land. They ―know the environment as an image; they have an intellectual appreciation of nature as something separate from themselves‖ (Way 35). This appreciation comes from a series of formal education, as received by Ada, which leads to a dwindled connection between humans and nature. Ada even names her cow and horse respectively Waldo and Ralph, which reminds readers of a great essayist and poet, who lunched the Transcendentalism. But the intellectual appreciation of nature last until Monroe passes away. Shortly after father‘s death, Ada is totally at a loss as how to continue to live, for the servants have been drafted into the army. For quite a long time, Ada is alone no knowing what to do except reading books and finding food in the farm. Luckily, Ruby, a child of nature, comes to offer help. Being a fairly independently girl, Ruby is by no means Ada‘s maid. She claims that she does not work for money, rather, she just needs a place to live, and each has to empty the night jar of one‘s own. Gradually, Ruby teaches Ada how to arrange everything in the farm. She follows Ruby noting down everything that needs to be done in order of importance: To be done immediately: Lay out a garden for cool season crops—turnips, onions, cabbage, lettuce, greens. Cabbage seed, do we have any? Soon: Patch shingles on barn roof; do we have a maul and froe? Buy clay crocks for preserving tomatoes and beans. Pick herbs and make from them worm boluses for the horse. (93) These things used to be finished by the servants now come to Ada‘s mind. And Ada 35 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 is very willing to learn these practical skills. She even sells her piano in order to barter more food, as she believes her upcoming life will not be taken up by playing the piano. Monroe used to tell her that ―like all elements of nature, the features of this magnificent topography were simply tokens of some other world, some deeper life with a whole other existence toward which we ought aim all our yearning‖ (144), which Ada cannot agree more, but now, in her perspective, what she sees with her eyes are not tokens at all, but they are just lively living beings. As time goes by, Ada gradually begins to notice something around her, like birds, the season, the sun. Ruby‘s store of knowledge about nature teaches Ada to look outward from her book and to interact with the surrounding circumstance. Ada stood still and let her eyes go unfocused, and as she did she became aware of the busy movements of myriad tiny creatures vibrating all through the massed flowers, down the stems and clear to the ground. Insects flying, crawling, climbing, eating. Their accumulation of energy was a kind of luminous quiver of life that filled Ada‘s undirected vision right to the edges. (139) In this way, Ada not only become interested in and keen on the natural world surrounding her, she also comes to terms with doing laborious farming work like an average village woman. Ada also matures psychologically by Ruby‘s help. She admits to Ruby that she is at first scared by the stark topography around Cold Mountain, feeling marginalized and eccentric. But this land is what she can share with Inman, and bit by bit she learns from Ruby to find security living close to nature. At the end of the novel, Ada transforms into a woman fully integrated with nature. She lost the right fingertip when trying to cut down the trees in the spot where she has marked the sun setting from the porch. ―She has shed herself of her urban conceits and now knows that the environment is much more than an awe-inspiring image; it is a real, integrated system in which people play a vital role.‖ (Way 49) 36 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 The transformation of Ada from a city girl to a nature-sensitive woman explicitly shows that woman is close to nature. Even if a nature-detached woman, after receiving natural education, can become a woman of nature, making use of natural element and living a peaceful life in nature. 4.1.2 Ruby’s intuition of nature Unlike Ada, Ruby is a role model for as well as a friend of Ada. Ruby‘s store of know-how of nature affects Ada on interacting with the real land. And Ruby manifests the ecofeminist theory of women being close to nature, moving at pace with seasons, and establishing an intimate relationship with the land. As has been mentioned above, Ruby is scantly tended and raised up by her father and poor-educated, being able to read though. The way she is brought up enables her to be fully involved with the land around her since very little. ―In urban terms Ruby would be a waif, a street arab, but in the mountains such a childhood led to an education that stresses the intimate connections of people to their environment.‖ (Way 43) It is true that Ruby never wants to travel nor does she care much about money. Actually, she regards money as so easily to depreciate that she is always inclined to barter. She trades Ada‘s piano for quite a great deal of food including a brood sow and a shoat and a hundred pounds of corn grits, a half dozen of little mountain sheep, a wagonload of cabbages and a ham and ten pounds of bacon. Ruby has a particularly keen eye about natural changes and draw correspondent regular patterns to make things better. She teaches Ada that Cut firewood in the old of the moon…otherwise it won‘t do much but fry and hiss at you come winter. Next April when the poplar leaves are about the size of a squirrel's ear, we‘ll plant corn when the signs are in the feet; otherwise the corn will just shank and hang down. November, we‘ll kill a hog in the growing of the moon, for if we don‘t the meat will lack grease and pork chops will cup up in the pan. (134) 37 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Therefore, to do things according to the signs of heaven is actually a respect of nature or rather an integration of nature. Apart from being good at raising crops, Ruby has a store of lore that seems impractical to Ada at first. Ruby reads nature much as an urban resource speculator would—for both, the environment must be altered in order to produce. But unlike the urbanité, Ruby experiences no separation between culture and nature; a local like Ruby is reminded on a daily basis that her own survival is contingent upon the survival of her surrounding environment. (Way 49) Mantis, corn borers, salamanders, poisonous-looking plants and fungi, larvae, bugs, worms and so on all catch Ruby‘s attention, each of which occupies a place in the ecosystem. That is to say, every tiny thing has a function in the natural world, or rather, everything is equal and necessary. Missing one will lead to slight changes, and if species loss escalates to a greater extent, the eco-balance will be broken. That‘s why ecological holism is of great significance. Besides, Ruby has a firm belief that people should live on their land and do not leave it. Her view was that a world properly put together would yield inhabitants so suited to their lives in their assigned place that they would have neither need nor wish to travel. No stagecoach or railway or steamship would be required; all such vehicles would sit idle. Folks would, out of utter contentment, choose to stay home since the failure to do so was patently the root of many ills, current and historic. (243-244) This creed is again reminding people that living in peace with the land and we can achieve a lot from it. Ruby sticks to the idea tightly and in so doing advocating other women to accept her idea. Her view is, in fact, against globalization or industrialization in that people should just stay in their homeland without traveling to other distant place, 38 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 and accordingly such means of transportation is necessary, let alone large-scale vehicles like aeroplanes or trains. That is to say, the world will not be like a web today with people coming and going smoothly and with different cultural communication. Furthermore, if everyone just lives in their neighborhood living a self-sufficient life, industrialized cities fraught with exactly the same mass-manufactured products will not come into being. 4.1.3 The goatwoman’s reliance on nature The goatwoman is another striking character that needs to be discussed. She was forced to marry an old man with a farm who tortured his previous three wives to death one after another. Thinking that she would be the forth, the young goatwoman ran away with a cart and eight goats. Since then she has been living alone in the mountain all by herself for nearly 27 years. She can be called a hermit, caring little about the outside world. When Inman meets her, he is very weak, so the kind-hearted woman offers him food and shelter and even makes medicine to cure his wound. And she even doesn‘t mind whether Inman is a deserter or not, though she shows curiosity of why Inman would enlist in the war four years ago. The place the goat woman lives in is really primitive. a construction that had evidently begun life nomadic but had taken root. It was a little rust-colored caravan standing in a clearing among the canted trees. The shakes of its arched roof were spotted with black mildew, green moss, grey lichen. (266) The aged goatwoman has been living in the cart for decades. Though the shanty can never be compared with Ada‘s big house, it displays many useful things, which make full use of natural material. The greasy lamps are actually teacups filled with lard, and the 39 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 wicks are twisted bits of rag. Bundles of dried herbs and roots hung on strings from the ceiling, and various brown peltry of small animals lay in stacks among the books and on the floor. The wings of a nighthawk, the dark feathers spread as in flight, rested atop the highest book pile. Thin smoke from the smoldering sprucewood fire rose through cracks in the stove door and then hung in a layer against the lath of the roof and the arched ribs of the joists. (269-270) All the seemingly useless odds and ends come from nature and are of practical use. Being on her own all the time, the goatwoman has little basic means of sustenance, so she utilizes the natural gift and doesn‘t have to pay for it. She is like the primitive man who fully relies on nature. What I soon learned was that a body can mainly live off goats, their milk and cheese. And their meat in times of year when they start increasing to more than I need. I pull whatever wild green is in season. Trap birds. There's a world of food growing volunteer if you know where to look. (272-273) As for food, the goatwoman mainly live on goat, each part of which can be cooked into tasty food. She cannot remember how many generations there are from the first batch she took away from the old man 27 years ago. Sometimes like Ruby, she will go to a village to trade off cheese for other foods like taters and lard, which is to diversify her diet so as to eat balanced meals. Unlike Ruby and Ada, this respectable aged goatwoman nearly depend on nobody else, and when she is unfairly treated by men, she will bravely fight for it. There was once she was selling six goats to a man, but she forgot to take her bell of the goat‘s neck. When she argued with the man, he did not want to give back the bells and said the deal is completed and even called dogs to run her off. Thinking that she could not outcompete the man face to face, the goatwoman had to go back at night with a knife and cut the collar and get back the bells. The woman never yields to the power and 40 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 will always find ways to guard her rights. The goatwoman may not be a leading role in this novel; however, she plays a significant role in revealing women‘s power. The goatman may appear tough and strong-will, but she is really warm-hearted, making herbs to cure Inman‘s wound, offer him food and shelter which has not been sufficient for her. She is like the mother of earth using all she owns to feed men. Furthermore, for no reason what so ever she can relieve Inman‘s agony and reach into the recess of his thoughts and feelings. This proves that women, just like nature, are able to cure men‘s wound whether physically or spiritually. On the whole, the above three women prove the arguments in ecofeminism that women are instinctively closer to nature, and everything in the natural chain of beings has function and women resembles the earth mother who will cure injured men both spiritually and physically with all she can offer. It is time that human beings discarded the patriarchal oppression of women and human domination of nature. 4.2 Interpretation of the Deserters’ Change The most two striking deserters in Cold Mountain should be Inman and Stobrod, Ruby‘s father. The former is the male protagonist, and the latter a supporting character, who is also granted with much favor by Frazier. Both Inman and Stobrod undergo deep changes because of the war, hence their relationship with nature altering from the beginning to the end. These male characters represent Frazier‘s hope of millions of other men who used to be anthropocentric could gradually realize something bigger and become more supportive of ecofeminists‘ viewpoint of creating a harmonious relationship with women and all living beings. 4.2.1 Inman’s dependence on Cold Mountain Inman used to be a Confederate soldier, who was called upon by others to protect his homeland and ward off the invaders. However, as far as nature is concerned, the warriors 41 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 like Inman undoubtedly play the role of the destroyer. In other words, they embody anthropocentricism, paying no attention to the natural environment. They reckon themselves to be above nature and women, leaving women behind to join the army and fight against the foe, which will deal a huge blow to nature, including the ecosystem. Nevertheless, unlike other soldiers, Inman became a deserter. The following analysis of Inman‘s relationship with Cold Mountain fully reveals the author‘s ideological trends that his dependence on nature confirms the ecofeminists‘ idea that men should cast off anthropocentrism or androcentrism so that they will finally reconciliate with nature. Cold Mountain in Inman‘s perspective is not static. Instead, it means different to him at different stages. To put it in another way, the influence Cold Mountain exerts on Inman varies in different times. So the relation between Inman and Cold Mountain is ever changing, i.e. dynamic. However, no matter how it changes, readers can discern that Inman is always depending on Cold Mountain. Cold Mountain is Inman‘s Homeland. Scholars of ecofeminism believe that habitat, especially, homeland for everyone is not just a place to live or a hometown in the traditional meaning. It is a place where people, no matter male or female, are involved in the motherland physically or spiritually. ―home‖ must not remove men from the roles of nurturing and caring, or perpetuate the burden of homemaking as exclusive to women. ―Home‖ needs to be understood as ―a set of relationships, a series of contextual experiences,‖ and a place of connection where one lives physically, where one is emotionally connected, and where one is part of a community of beings. (Gaard 14) Before Inman joins the army, Cold Mountain serves as his hometown and a place of good memory. It represents tranquility and peace. He spends most of his childhood and adolescence living a carefree life. Sometimes he would talk to some Cherokees to learn about their folklore of local mystery, of life, of death, and of another world. Though not 42 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 so convinced at first, these folktales becomes his spiritual relief and provides him some answers when he is disillusioned with war. So Cold Mountain is what he can depend on spiritually. Likewise, the relationship with Ada in Cold Mountain is also the reason why Cold Mountain counts so much for Inman. In Cold Mountain, he first meets Ada, and then they gradually get to a little familiar with each other. Inman is first attracted by Ada‘s beauty and grace, and Ada is impressed with Inman‘s emotionally reserved character and honesty. They both feel the same for each other yet they keep it in their heart. Before Inman joins the army, Inman sends her a photo of his and Ada sends him a Bartram‘s Travels. This book accompanies Inman all through his journey home, serving as a spiritual and topographical guide that inspires Inman with imaginary visions of home and directs him towards it. Meanwhile, the book reminds him of his good old short days with Ada in Cold Mountain. Cold Mountain is a place of spiritual connection with Ada where they both live, where he is emotionally connected with Ada and where he is part of the community of Ada. When he is fighting in the battle, it seems that he is anthropocentric, only thinking about how to kill the enemies. But actually, Cold Mountain is more of spiritual solace. During the battlefield, he has seen so many massacres. Whether it is done by his team mates or by his enemies, he has got used to or get numbed with the killing, and even regards it as a natural phenomenon. A man can be shot in any part of his body, and a variety of death struggling have left a deep impression on Inman, which causes countless nightmares he has been obsessed with. Tortured by the massacre he has witnessed, Inman seeks spiritual solace in the natural world—longing for his Cold Mountain and in his memories of Ada. When Inman is fleeing away from the battlefield heading home, Cold Mountain represents a North Star at first. By that North Star, he knows to head west rather than gets lost in the wild land. By that North Star, he comes to understand the war is nothing but 43 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 slaughter so he makes the right decision to return home, and to follow the North Star‘s guidance. By that North Star, he firmly believes that home is waiting for him, unfolding its arms to him, and the trudge will eventually have an end. At home, everything is in peace and everyone is so kind to each other. Certainly, the trek home is full of tribulation. Being a draft-dodger, he not only has to bear the pain of the wound, but also should be alert to being captured by home guard, a group of bully. Sometimes, he cannot find anything to eat for several days in a row and he could be starving to death. However, he still bears love, thinking about Ada all the way home. Whenever he is in bad condition, he always wonders whether he can hold on and make it through till he returns to Ada. Sometimes, the severe starvation leads to his unclear mind. ―But it was hard to reason things out in the state he was in. Part from choice and part from necessity, Inman was fasting and his senses would not row up properly. He had not eaten bite one in the days since he had cooked the bear cub‖ (392). This is a vivid picture of how much ordeal Inman has to undergo before he reaches home. It is safe to say that his physical and mental health is severely tortured by the extreme condition, which will usually lead to moral degradation. Assaulted by evil forces, Inman justifies aggressive means, for example, killing bad guys, for the sake of protecting innocent people, including himself. But thanks to Cold Mountain, the moral code in this sense, he maintains a noble man deep inside his heart. Because in his hometown, people get along well with each other. He has been inculcated with the right worldview of good and evil and a belief that men should help those in need and should be grateful to those who help you. He has been nurtured into a man of integrity. He will always help those in need. For example, he helps Sara to snatch back the hog and chicken, and there are times when he is so hungry that he steals some food, but he leaves much more money than it worth to express his gratitude and guilt. While he is heading home, he keeps recalling and reinterpreting past events in Cold Mountain, which serves as a spiritual awakening. Particularly, Cherokee folktales point 44 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 to a world beyond the real terrestrial realm—Shangri-La. It comforts Inman as he delves deeper into the mountains. If there was no war, his hometown could be like heaven. After Junior‘s trap and his near-death experience, his faith in himself falters. But his faith of a better world does not. Sara and the goatwoman‘s kindness and bravery actually reinforce Inman‘s resolution. He remembers what the goatwoman tells him—God help you forget the saddest thing so that you can move on to a new day. Cold Mountain is always reminding Inman of his humanity when he keeps on moving toward home. The closer he is approaching home, the more humane he becomes. He is no longer a person who only thinks of his own survival, but also other living beings survival. There are times that he is so starved that he kills the cub bear and eat with remorse. By the next time when he sees a duck stuck in a lake, he could have shot it to satisfy his hunger, but he just lets the duck stay where it is to fight with its destiny, because he doesn‘t want to do more killing of living beings. Also he will hear some encouraging sounds in the road beneath his feet to recognize his good deeds. He has been imagining for several times the situation he reunite with Ada and confess his love to her in person. And he even has a hot bath to be more like the image he impressed on Ada 4 years ago, more humane. In this way, his spirit awakens or rather, his humanity awakens. When Inman finally reunites with Ada, Cold Mountain becomes a place of redemption. Inman talks of the war only with remorse and disillusion. He regrets that he has wasted so many years in slaughter. Yet he also considers it meaningless regretting for the lost self endlessly. What‘s been done cannot be undone. The grief won‘t change anything. So Inman just move on and try something different to redeem his spirit. He does not want to share too much detailed experience of journey home with Ada except that telling her how he fails trying to walk with no hope and no fear and later adjusting his mood with the weather. Apart from that, Inman is more willing to envision a bright future in Cold Mountain with Ada, about how they make a living and what interests they will pick up in old age. For Inman, the war fever changes him very much, though not 45 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 entirely. He can shoot people to death to protect the innocent, but he calls for absolution by not willing to kill the young man who in fact kills him. Sorrowfully, his hope of letting go of the grudges and looking forward to a peaceful life with nature is not realized due to a deadly gunshot by the young man, yet he can pursue his peaceful dream in heaven, as the real world is always fraught with conflict and feud. Being killed by an evil guy from home guard is not because Inman makes an enemy but because in the war time, there are always people holding different belief or values or with different interest. It is the war that alienates people and cause discord among each other. It is such a satire that a man so eager for peaceful life can only realizes his eternal peace in paradise. Inman dies in his homeland, Cold Mountain. This time, Cold Mountain represents a place of relief, where he can pursue peace forever. 4.2.2 Stobrod’s linking with others Another male character worth analyzing is Stobrod Thewes, Ruby‘s father. He is a man going through a process of reincarnation in Cold Mountain. From an egocentric man to a musician living a peaceful life with his offspring and neighbors, his change proves that men and women enjoy equal status and they are interrelated and should lead a harmonious life with each other. Stobrod used to be a very irresponsible and unreliable father and had been the ―notorious local ne‘er-do-well and scofflaw‖ (105). He barely took care of Ruby when she was young. In this respect, it is conceivable that he also personifies what anthropocentrism, especially androcentrism advocates, thinking that women were born good at taking care of others, including themselves. He did not want to undertake the responsibility of being a father because Ruby‘s mother was nowhere to be found. If the mother did not feed the kid, why should the father feed the kid? This way of thinking just represents androcentrim that men should not do housework or take care of children but women should because men are superior to women and have greater aspiration. Once 46 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 little Ruby was stuck with the thorn in the wild in the afternoon, but no one passed by and found her. Stobrod of course did not notice his missing child, as his little daughter was not even on his mind. So 4-year-old Ruby had to spend the night all by herself, fighting against the creepy demon spirits she had heard before. The next day, she ultimately was set free by a passer-by and she came home without mentioning her unforgettable night to her father, who also never asked where she had been. This is a convincing instance of how careless Stobrod to his daughter. Before the warfare, Stobrod, the indifferent and careless father lived an idle life in the peaceful homeland due to the lack of spiritual communion with nature and failing to sense the beauty of Cold Mountain. Stobrod was, in Ruby‘s memory, never good at anything and had no willing of doing things well except he could play the violin a little bit Ok. He used to eat one‘s head off and idle around. ―He‘d walk forty miles for a party. At even the rumor of a dance he would head out down the road, toting the fiddle from which he could barely scratch out a handful of standard figures. Ruby might not see him again for days‖ (108). Obviously, Stobrod always wanted to seek pleasure and avoid even a bit hard work. He just muddled along the days and took the perfunctory life for granted because Cold Mountain in his eyes was so ordinary and life here was never stressful. He failed to learn something spiritual from Cold Mountain like his daughter did. He failed to find out the natural regulation, the integration of natural living beings and the way ecosystem functions. It can be deduced that Stobrod was leading a self-centered life, never caring his daughter and never paying much attention to the surrounding. He only focused on himself. Where could I get another drink? Where would there be a party? He only thought of himself and never realized that he was actually linked with others, little Ruby for example. As for Ruby‘s mother, he would not bother to be worried about her, who Ruby never saw since little. He had never had a concept of undertaking the responsibility of being a father and bringing Ruby up, not to mention loving her. 47 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 To Ruby‘s surprise, he enlisted in the army and had no news since then. She thought that he could be killed in battle or ran away from the army, which is not the case. Coincidently, the thief that steals Ruby and Ada‘s corn is actually Stobrod, which makes Ruby look down upon him again. Nonetheless, Stobrod has quite changed because of the Civil War. He finds out his talent in playing the fiddle when he is asked to improvise a song for a dying girl. Then he realizes that he could do better with his fiddle. And it is after that improvisation that he comes to realize that his life may somehow connected with others and that he can do something meaningful for others. He is no longer concerned with the war. Instead, he is preoccupied with music and how to improve his tune and how to bring joy to others by his music. Because of his mania for fiddle, he can search in the Cold Mountain for the tailpiece of a rattlesnake so as to improve the sound of his fiddle. Even Ruby admits with surprise that ―this far on in life he‘s finally found the only tool he‘s ever shown any skill at working‖ (297). And Stobrod believes that ―he was now another man in some regards than the one that went off to fight. Something about the war had made him and his music a whole different thing‖ (292). He has been attracted by music to such a great degree that he would listen to a tune for hundreds of times, each time with a different experience. Moreover, music has become a spiritual solace as well as pleasure. A wanderer who could only play 6 tunes can now play 900 fiddle tunes, of which 100 are composed by Stobrod himself. For him, the war is to be forgotten while the music should be pursued. It is music that turns him into a meaningful man. By music, his life is linked with others. His music at that time really counts much for others, as well as himself. Every time Ruby and Ada hear out a tune, they will feel extremely relieved. It can lead Ruby and Ada to a beautiful life not far in the future. It gives them hope at such stressful war time. It conveys a meaning even understood by a retarded boy. In this respect, Stobrod‘s music has a greater meaning—connecting all the 48 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 human beings, regardless of their status. The link with a simpleminded person better illustrates ecofeminism‘s view that everything is and should be interrelated. Everything relies on something else. The relation with Pangle is a good case in point. Pangle, an idiot, has no clear idea of anything else but surprisingly has a gift in music and learns playing banjo from Stobrod. This is largely attributed to Stobrod‘s influence of music. When Stobrod is playing the banjo, Pangle believes that the tunes can ―lead one toward a better life, one in which a satisfied mind might one day be attainable‖ (338). Apart from playing the fiddle, he can sing songs with Pangle, who always regards Stobrod as lore and admires him so much that is particularly attached to him. What a sharp contrast for a man who would take little care of his daughter before war can teach a simpleton music after war. The contrast is reminding readers that Pangle needs Stobrod to be enlightened in music, and in return, Stobrod finds his value by teaching Pangle to play banjo. This is like mutual reliance and co-existence as advocated by ecofeminists. Also, from music, Stobrod gets reborn and will regard war as meaningless. It is in Cold Mountain away from battlefield that he gets a better understanding of life and death and of how to get along with others, to remedy his relationship with his daughter and to teach a simpleminded person classic music. At that moment, his was a saint‘s blithesome face, loose and half a-smile with the generosity of his gift and with a becoming neutrality toward his own abilities, as if he had long since cheerfully submitted to knowing that however well he rendered a piece, he could always imagine doing better. If all the world had a like countenance, war would be only bitter memory. (338) The above description is about Stobro‘s facial expression after playing a tune. He is involved in the song; he is self-confident of his performance; what‘s more, he is modest in reckoning that he can still improve his playing. That‘s why his fiddle playing gets better and better. He also gains something spiritual from music so that he can keep his 49 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 countenance facing death and creates the most lamentable song even touching the one who kills him. From music, he gains enormous power to reshape who he is and makes the evil executioners—the home guard ashamed of themselves. On the other hand, Ruby‘s attitude toward Stobrod changes when she knows that her father might be dead. Knowing that Stobrod is deadly wounded by gunshot of the home guard, Ruby and Ada rush to find him as soon as possible. Finding that her father is still alive, she is so relieved that she begins to wonder how she would get along with her father in the future. Fortunately, Stobrod survives in the end and his daughter finally accepts her father as a good man. Near the end of the book, after Ruby and Ada‘s care, Stobrod survives and recover from the deadly wound. In the epilogue, ten years later, she and her sons get along well with him. What‘s more, this ending unfolds a comforting picture of men and women living happily ever after. The harmonious view reflects an egalitarian thought that women are more careful and they will always take care of men and cure them once get injured, both spiritually and physically. Meanwhile, men and women enjoy equal status. Men are not the center of the universe, and men should be interrelated with others, treating others equally, which strongly rebuts the androcentric dualism. In summary, Inman and Stobrod are the only two representatives of deserters who look back and introspect that the war is not what it seems and humans need to do something more meaningful. Their reconciliation with nature is satisfactory in terms of ecofeminism in that they don‘t get lost in war but see it through and realize something more intrinsic about nature. For Inman it is the dependence on Cold Mountain and for Stobrod it is linking with others by music. 50 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Conclusion Ecocriticism is a relatively new school of thought that extends the idea of the world into the entire ecosphere. That is to say, when ecocritics appreciate literary works, they will take natural surroundings into consideration apart from people and the society. They attempt to figure out the role natural elements play in the novel. Currently, ecocritics unanimously agree that anthropocentrism is the basic source of all ecological crisis as well as human developmental crisis. It suggests that humans are supreme in the world, and nature is dominated by human race. That‘s why science and technology has been developing at leaps and bounds while natural environment has been deteriorating. On the contrary, what ecologists propose is ecological holism, which believes that everything in the ecosphere enjoys equal status. The system as a whole is above all, and it should not be seen as the sum of every single member. So it breaks the androcentric dualism of man/woman. This is also in line with ecofeminism. Ecofeminism subverts the European tradition which places men above women and nature. And it holds the stance that the creatures on the earth compose an interrelated web, no one excelling others. As far as the novel is concerned, human beings are so instilled with anthropocentrism that they pay any price to get what they want. The development of industrialization in northern American leads to different views and values between northern Americans and southern Americans, which results in the war fever, in which an army of people are drafted to fight for slavery abolishment while another army of people are drafted to drive off the enemy. But when the war breaks out, the sublime purpose becomes untenable, because soldiers only see slaughter other than anything else. That‘s why quite a proportion of them become void of soul and disillusioned with war; hence so many deserters just like Inman and Stobrod. 51 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 Frazier choosing Inman the deserter as a noble protagonist rather than well-known generals best indicates his anti-anthropocentric attitude. These deserters are the victims of the war fever caused by anthropocentrism, and there is not much description of battles but outliers‘ way of returning home, so it is obvious that Frazier disapproves of war. Frazier takes Inman‘s heading home as an example of many deserters‘. The tortuous trek home is fraught with jeopardy but deserters still does not to hesitate to return home where everything is in peace. They have to keep alert to avoid home guard troops or people with evil purposes. They are not guaranteed with food or water. Only by luck will they meet good people to have food or shelter. They have a hard time surviving the bad surrounding and keeping away of evil people. For another, the natural chain of beings has been disrupted. Men and women, mankind and animals, they are all in different status, especially during war time—the former always gets the upper hand. Ada is brought up by his father into an upper-class lady, who never knows any practical way of living. Ruby is barely taken care of by her father, Stobrod, and therefore learns substantially a great many pragmatic skills in the wild. More tragically, Sara the 18-year-old widow is even raided by three federals. Meanwhile, living beings are also undermined by the war. The farm in front of Ada‘s house is desolate, even chickens only having to eat bugs. Also the bears being ―killed‖ by Inman proves that men always dominate his destiny when facing danger and animals have to be sacrificed. Through contrastive depiction of land raided by war and homeland that is free of war fever and also imaginative land by Cherokee tales, Frazier makes his point quite clear that the war has dealt a huge blow on human beings, natural environment and its living beings. The aftermath is quite severe and to fight for people‘s value or belief is never worthwhile if it takes a toll on nature. In this novel, there are five leading characters—three women and two deserters—that embody what ecological holism and ecofeminism advocate. Ada used to be the most detached with nature because of her orthodox education. She is very good at 52 华中科技大学硕士学位论文 literature and arts, but she knows nothing about practical work like farming. Only with the help of Ruby, she becomes concerned with nature and well grasps practical skills on land. This adaption sets a good example of women‘s affinity with nature. Ruby is even a better case in point. She has gained much experience in nature and is born with a keen intuition of nature. Her growth allows her to have so much knowledge in nature that she means a lot to Ada in helping her become a strong and independent woman. The goatwoman, though only a supporting character, also proves that women can fight for man‘s unfair treatment and their own destiny. She has been living alone in the mountain for decades mainly feeding on goat, and also forms the right value of the world, being indifferent to men crazy acts like war but with more concern with nature. Inman the deserter, our male protagonist, is to the bone a loving and noble man. His relationship with Cold Mountain changes throughout his life. He witnesses the destruction brought about by the war and comes to realize what he really desires. As a matter of fact, he is always dependent on Cold Mountain spiritually. With the help of Cold Mountain, he heads home without getting lost, and he seeks spiritual solace whether before the war or after the war. His journey home teems with ordeal and peril. But the spiritual support is the main reason that he can at last reach home and reunite with Ada. Stobrod, another deserter, is a good example of reincarnation in war time. The former self-centered drunker and irresponsible father becomes fond of playing the fiddle and his music even influences many other people, even including a simpleminded boy. From music, the also war-disillusioned deserter finds his own value and his value has been recognized by others including Ruby and Ada. Their final happy and harmonious life in the epilogue further shows men and women enjoy equal status and mutual need in their lives. To summarize, analysis of this novel from ecocriticism and ecofeminism indicates that the author‘s anti-anthropocentric attitude and the reconstruction of a harmonious relationship between mankind and nature are subtly implied. 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