会计专业毕业论文英文译文

The Conventions of Contemporary Accounting Accounting conventions are concepts and rules which have been accepted in performing bookkeeping and accounting. It came from a careful observation of accounting practice which revealed patterns of consistent behavior. The existence of conventions was not generally recognized by accountants until the 20th century. They were developed to aid accountants in exercising judgment and estimation in order to limit likely differences in recording similar events by different accountants. The principal convention of contemporary accounting will be discussed. THE ENTITY CONVENTION Contemporary accounting divides the community into separate units called “accounting entities”. For each accounting entity a self-contained, double-entry accounting system is employed. Transactions between accounting entities are recorded in the accounts of both entities. Each accounting entity interprets transactions from its own viewpoint. For example, the same transaction may be recorded as a sale by one accounting entity and as a purchase by another. Similarly, one accounting entity may record a transaction as an investment, while the other accounting entity may record it as a capital contribution. In any particular case the identification of the accounting entity may be difficult. Consider,for example, the case of a large chain of retail stores. Is the accounting entity the whole business, a regional operation, a single store or a single department in that store? The answer can be found only by looking at the organization of the business. If a department has its own accounting system and records transactions with other departments, then it is an entity for accounting purpose. If it has no records, then it is not an accounting entity. The accounting entity is, therefore, identified as the smallest unit of activity with a self-contained accounting system。 THE “GOING CONCERN” CONVENTION Contemporary accounting assumes the entity will remain in operation for the foreseeable future. This assumption is known as the “going concern” or the “continuity”convention. This assumption does not refer simply to its continued existence. It also assumes that it will continue in the same line of business as those in which it is cur-rently involved, The assumption of continuity is made in the absence of evidence to the contrary. In other words, when it is clear that an assumption of continued existence would result in misleading financial reports, then the assumption is not made. A major problem facing the accounting profession is in identifying the circumstances under which the continuity assumption should be abandoned. Sometimes company failures occur with the accounting reports continuing to be based upon the going concern convention. These accounting reports are subsequently as misleading. And premature abandonment of the continuity assumption by accountants may cause liquidation if it results in demands by creditors for repayment of accounts outstanding. Authoritative guidelines are needed in this area if continuity is to remain a basic assumption of contemporary accounting. THE MONETARY CONVENTION In contemporary accounting, an entity’s transactions are recorded in the accounts in the monetary unit of the country in which it is operating. However, in general, financial statements are presented in the currency of the country where the reports are published.The use of money as the unit of account is accepted today without question, but that has not always been the case. For example, such commodities as cattle, salt, shells, and tobacco are said to be employed as a unit of account. The use of money as a unit of account does create some difficulties. In the first place, transactions must be expressed in money before they can be recorded in the accounts. In some cases transactions or events may not have an obvious money amount. Transactions and events of this type are either ignored or assigned a subjective or arbitrary money amount.The second difficulty associated with the monetary convention is that the value of money is not constant over time. Its purchasing power changes as a result of either inflation or deflation. Accountants conventionally choose to ignore the changes in the purchasing power of money in the accounts. And this will cause some deficiencies in accounting reports。 THE CONSISTENCY CONVENTION Contemporary accounting assumes that accountants consistently apply accounting procedures from one period to the next. As a corollary, if accounting procedures are changed, the fact of the change and its effect on reported results are supposed to be disclosed in the financial statements. The purpose of this convention is to allow meaningful inter- period comparisons of results of an entity. Without consistency in accounting procedures, management could manipulate a firm’s reported results merely by changes in accounting procedures. Under these circumstances inter-period comparisons would have to be treated with skepticism. This convention differs from the others in an important respect. The others describe conventional practices actually used by accountants. The consistency convention, however, involves prescription. This convention is one that accountants ought to follow rather than that is necessThe consistency convention does not mean that accounting methods cannot be changed. A change should be made if a new procedure would result in financial statements with improved “truth and fairness”. If a justifiable change is made, the fact and the effect of the changes should be disclosed. The convention only requires that capricious changes in procedure which can be justified by reference to a “true and fair” view should not be made.ary followed. The convention does not require an inter-firm consistency in accounting procedures. Two similar firms in the same industry may record a similar transaction in different ways and still comply with the consistency convention. The convention applies only to the accounting practices of a particular entity from period to period. The lack of inter-firm consistency means that analyst needs to exercise a great deal of care in making inter-firm comparisons。Even, the convention does not mean that there must be an internal consistency in the use of accounting procedures. For example, the convention does not imply that a business depreciates all its assets on same basis or that all discounts allowed are treated as expense. Consistency would allow, for example, that plant and equipment be depreciated on a straight-line basis and that motor vehicles be depreciated on an accelerated basis. All that consistency implies is that the accounting procedures for a particular type of transactions are the same from period to the next. THE CONVENTION OF CONSERVATISM It is a characteristic of contemporary accounting that accountants act conservatism or prudently in the measurement of profit. In general, this meansthat accountants use “reasonable pessimism” in measuring revenues and expenses. Revenues are not recorded until they are reasonably certain, but expenses are recorded as soon as they are become probable. Similarly, when accountants have a choice of measurements of cost for assets and liabilities, they will, other things being equal, choose the lowest for assets and the highest for liabilities. The effect of this convention is that reported profits and net assets will be lower than under most alternative assumptions. There are several possible explanations for the convention of conservatism. One is that it is the traditional role of accountants to curb the optimism of management. Accountants are seen as a sobering influence, forcing management to assess proposals and expectations in a realistic way to minimize errors arising from over-optimism.A second explanation is that all conservatism is a natural reaction to uncertainly. As students will behave conservatively and publicly choose a modest expectation of an exam result even through they may think that they have a good chance for a high grade, accountants faced with uncertainty about futures events also behave conservatively。A third explanation is that statements users may prefer conservatism to any alternative policy. Given that profit measurement depends upon estimates, conservatism ensures that the actual profit must be at least as high as the reported profit. Conservatism allows confidence in published reports. Whatever profits and net assets may be, they will not be less than those disclosed in the published accounts. THE OBJECTIVITY CONVENTION Where an accountant has a choice of measurements the most objective will be preferred, other things equal. As far as possible, an accountant will avoid incorporating guesses or estimates in the accounting records and reports. In practical terms, objectivity means that an accountant requires evidence of the existence and the amount of a trans-action before recording in the books. For many transactions the evidence is documentary, for example, invoices, receipts, cash register type and credit notes. The documentary evidence is the stimulus for recording transactions. Accountants prefer objectivity for two reasons. First, it makes the accountant’s job easier. Routine rule-following is easier than a careful examination of each transaction to determine a reasonable amount for recording purpose. Second, reliance upon documentary evidence and generally accepted accounting procedures provides accountants with some support if their professional competence is questioned. It is a more convincing defense to produce evidence to support accounting records or to argue that generally accepted procedures were used than to assert that the entries seemed reasonable at the time. THE MATERIALITY CONVENTION It is contemporary accounting practice to record and report separately only those transactions which are material. An item is judged to be material if it is important enough to influence the decisions of statement users. Some items are material because they are large. For example, a large bad-debt write-off would usually be regarded as a material event. Some items are material because they are small. For example, a very low inventory figure may be judged to be material if it reflects unfavorably on a firm’s liquidity. Some items may be material if they differ significantly in amount from the same item in earlier periods. For example, a small bad-debt write-off may be judged material if it is twice as large as normal. Some items may be judged to be material solely because of their nature and regardless of their relative size. For example, the sales figure would probably be material no matter how large, how small or how variable it was. Materiality has two principal applications. One is in the processing and the other is in disclosure.In recording process, accountant must decide how much detail is necessary. Are separate ledger accounts needed for every asset or could some assets be grouped under a general heading, for example, “plant and equipment”? In general, ledger accounts would be maintained only if they contained material data. All not-material items would be aggregated in “sundry accounts”. In other words, the decision of accounting system should be strongly influenced by considerations of materiality The second aspect of materiality relates to disclosure. Accountants use the notion of materiality as a criterion to decide how much detail to include in financial reports. If a piece of information is not material, then it should not be disclosed separately. For example, nowadays nearly all published financial statements omit cents and most show dollar amounts rounded to the nearest thousand. Any greater detail is judged to be not material. THE ACCOUNTING PERIOD CONVENTION It is contemporary accounting practice to measure the result of an entity’s operation over a relatively short period and to present a balance sheet at frequent intervals. The economic activity of a business is continuous. All transaction are recorded in the accounts and change the picture of the firm, as revealed in financial statements. The firm changes continuously as it carries out its operations. Changes cease only when the firm cease operations. In this world of continuity of operations and change, accountants are required by law to report on financial position and results at least annually. This requirement for annual reporting is a relatively modern development. Even as late as the 19th century major businesses presented financial statements at irregular and lengthy intervals. Annual reporting probably arose from the demands of investors, owners, creditors and taxation authorities who were not prepared to wait until the end of a firm’s life before the success of its operation was measured. The accounting period convention does, however, lead to difficulties. First, it should be realized that the shorter the reporting period the greater the need for estimates and judgment. Over a short period, few transactions will be completed and there will be more accruals and deferrals than for longer period. Incorporating accruals and deferrals into the accounts increase the subjectivity of financial statements. In addition, financial reports for short periods may provide misleading impressions of the long-run prospects for the firm. A balance sheet represents a “snapshot” of the entity’s financial position at an instant of time. Immediately before and after the date of the balance sheet, the financial position is different. Bye the time the balance sheet is published the financial position of the firm may have changed dramatically. As a result, the balance sheet is out of date the day after the end of the accounting period, and by the time it is published; it is of histori-cal interest only. 译文 现代会计惯例 会计惯例是在簿记和会计工作中被广为接受的概念和规则,源于对反映了连续一致的会计实务模式的认真研究。直到二十世纪,会计惯例的存在才被会计界广泛承认。会计惯例的产生有助于会计师进行判断和估计,以限制不同的会计师对类似的项目采用不同的记账方法。以下将讨论当今主要的会计惯例。 会计主体惯例现代会计把社会划分为一些独立的单位,叫做会计单位。每一个会计单位都运用独立的、复式记账的会计体系。会计单位之间的交易在双方的账目上都要登记。每一会计单位都从自己的角度对交易加以说明。例如:同一笔交易一个会计单位可以被登记为销售;在另一个会计单位则被登记为购买。同样,一个会计单位可以把一笔交易记为投资,而另一个会计单位可以把它记为缴入资本。 在特殊的情况下,很难确定会计单位。例如:对一个零售连锁店来说,会计单位是整个连锁店,地区经营部门,单独的一个商店还是那个商店的某一部门?只有认真考察了那个公司的组织机构后才能找出答案。如果一个部门有自己的会计系统,并对其与其他部门的交易记账,那么这个部门就是一个会计单位。 如果它没有这样的账目,那么它就不是一个会计单位。因此,会计单位被定义为有独立会计体系的最小业务单位。 “持续经营”惯例现代会计假定一个单位将在可预见的未来继续经营,这种假定被称为“持续经营 的企业”或“持续经营”惯例。这一假定并不仅仅指企业将继续存在下去,它还假定单位将继续在它目前所从事的行业内经营。 只有在不存在的相反的证据的情况下,才能做出“持续经营”的假定。换句话说,在继续存在的假设显然会引起财务具有误导作用这种情况下,就不能做出这种假定。会计行业所面临的一个主要问题是要识别出应该放弃持续经营假设的情况。有时,出现了会计报告仍然基于继续经营惯例而企业破产倒闭的 情况,这些报告后来被批评为是误导性报告。会计师没有足够的根据就放弃继续经营假设,那么,一旦引起债权人对未偿债务要求还款,就会导致破产清理。如果持续经营将继续作为当代会计的一个基本假设的话,在这方面需要一个有权威性的指导文件。 货币惯例现代会计中,一个单位的交易要以其经营所在国的货币单位记账。但是,一般来说,财务报表是用发布报表所在国的货币表示的。使用货币作记账单位在当今无疑已被接受,但并非一直是这样。例如,有些商品如牛、盐、贝壳和烟草据说曾用来做记账单位。 使用货币做记账单位的确也带来了一些困难。首先,交易在记入账目之前,必须要用货币来表示。有些情况下,交易或项目可能没有明显的货币价值。因此对这类交易和项目不是加以忽略,就是主观或武断地确定一个货币价值。与货币惯例有关的第二个困难是货币的价值并不总是稳定不变的,货币的购买力会随着通货膨胀或通货紧缩而产生变化。会计师习惯上对账面上货币购买力的变化不予理睬,但这样会造成会计报告的某些缺陷。 一贯性惯例现代会计假设会计师从一个阶段到下个阶段所使用的会计程序是一致的。作为推理,如果会计程序改变了,其变化及其对财务报告的影响应该 在财务报表中公布。这一惯例的目的是允许对一个单位不同期间的财务结果进行有意义比较。如果会计程序没有一致性,管理人员可以用仅仅改变会计程序的方法来篡改公司的财务报告。在这种情况下,只能以怀疑的态度看待不同期间的比较结果。这一惯例与其它惯例在一个重要的方面有所不同。其它惯例描述了会计师实际已经采用的习惯做法,这个惯例是会计师必须遵循而不只是有必要遵循的惯例。 一贯性惯例并不意味会计方法是不能改变的。如果新的程序可以使财务报表的真实性和公允性有改进,那么会计方法应该改变。如果证明是合理的改变,对改变的情况及其影响应当公布。一贯性惯例只对那些没有证据证明能帮助真实公正地反映情况的程序的变动加以制止。 一贯性惯例对公司间的会计处理并未做出要求。同一行业的两个类似的公司可以用不同方法对类似交易记账,但仍然是遵守了一贯性惯例。一贯性惯例只适用于某一单位一个期间到另一个期间的会计处理。如果公司间的会计处理缺乏一致性,分析家在进行公司间对比时要格外注意。进一步说,一贯性惯例并不意味在会计程序使用上一定要有一个内部一致性。例如:一贯性惯例并不是指公司对所有资产的折旧依据同一基础或所有可允许的折扣都作为费用处理。例如,一贯性惯例可以允许厂房和设备按直线折旧方法计算,汽车按加速折旧法计算。一贯性惯例所指的是从一个期间到另一个期间,同样的经济业务要使用相同的会计处理程序。 稳健性惯例在现代会计中,会计人员在计量利润时表现得稳健谨慎,这是很典型的。一般来说,这意味着会计人员在计量收入和支出时持有“合理的悲观主义”。除非他们相当肯定,他们才会把收入入账,但是只要支出是有可能的,他们就把它记入账目。同样,当会计人员在考虑如何计量资产和负债的成本时,在其它因素一致的情况下,他们将选择最低的资产成本,最高的负债成本。这种稳健性惯例的作用是所报告的利润和净资产要低于其它可供选择的假定下的结果。 对稳健性惯例有几种可能的解释。一种是抑制管理部门的乐观态度,这是会计人员的传统作用,会计人员被看成是一种起清醒作用的人,迫使管理人员以现实的态度评估计划和期望值,以期最大限度地降低由于过分乐观而产生的错误。关于稳健性惯例的第二种解释是对不肯定性的自然反映。就像一个学生,即使他认为自己得高分的机会很大,但一般是表现得很谨慎,对考试结果公开选择一种比较保守的预测。第三种解释是同其它可供选择的政策相比报表的用户可能更喜欢稳健的政策。在根据估计的情况来计量利润的时候,稳健政策可以确保利润至少同所报告的利润一样。稳健政策使得人们对公共发表的报告有信心,不管利润和净资产的数额到底是多少,它们至少不小于在公开的账目所公布的数字。 客观性惯例在会计人员对计量方法有选择的情况下,如果其它项目相同,最好选择最具有客观性的方法。会计人员要尽可能地避免在会计记录和报告中加入猜测和估计。在实际中客观性指的是在交易入账之前会计人员要掌握交易存在的凭证和交易的数额。许多交易的凭证是文件形式的,如发票、收据、现金出纳机磁带和贷项通知单。文件形式的凭证有利于记录经济业务。 会计人员喜欢客观性有两个原因。第一,它减轻了会计人员的工作强度。按常规记账比对每一笔交易都要进行认真复核以确定应入账的合理数额要容易。第二点,文件形式的凭证和普遍接受的程序可以为会计人员在他们的专业能力受到怀疑时提供一些证明。出示证明会计记录的凭证,或申辩使用的是普遍接受的程 序比宣称会计处理在当时看起来是合理的,是更具有说服力的防卫手段。 重要性惯例只对那些重要的交易单独记录和报告。当一个项目重要到可以影响报表用户的决定时,它就被判断为重要的项目。有些项目重要是因为它数额大。例如,冲销一笔大的坏账通常被认为是重要事项。有些项目重要是因为它们数额小。例如,假如小的存货余额反映了一个公司清偿能力的不足,那它就可能被判定为重要项目。有些项目如果比前期同类项目在数额上存在巨大差距,也可能就是重要的项目。例如,一笔数额不大的坏账冲销如果比正常情况要大一倍的话,它可以被判断为重要。有些项目被判断为重要仅仅是因为它们的性质,而与它们的金额无关。例如,销售额可能是重要的,而不论其规模是大还是小,变化多大。 重要性有两个重要的应用领域。一个是在记账过程中,另一个是在信息揭示的过程中。在记账过程中,会计人员必须决定要记到何种详细程度。是不是每项资产都要单设分类账,有一些资产可不可以集中在一个总的科目,如“固定资产”之下?一般来说,分类账上只记录重要数据,那些非重要项目都综合记入杂项账户。换言之,会计体系的确定受到重要性因素的强烈影响。重要性的第二个方面与公开财务状况有关。会计人员把重要性的概念作为决定在财务报告里所包括的内容的详细程度的标准。如果一份资料不重要的话,那么就不应该单独公布。例如:如今几乎所有公布的财务报表都省去了美分,一般都把美元四舍五入到千位,比这更为详细的情况被判断为不重要。 会计期间惯例现代会计实务是对一个单位在较短期间内的经营成本进行计量,并定期编报资产负债表。一个公司的经济活动是具有连续性的,所有的交易都记在账目上,不断地改变着公司的形象,正如在财务报表中所反映的那样。公司在经营的过程不断地发生着变化,只有当公司停止经营时,这种变化才会停止。在这个持续经营和变化的世界里,法律要求会计人员对财务状况和财务成果至少每年要报告一次。要求企业编报年度报表的做法出现的时间并不长,甚至至十九世纪,主要大公司提出财务报表的时间还是不定期的,比现在的时间间隔要长。年度报表主要是应那些不想等到公司终止经营,在其经营是否成功的结果出来之前就想了解一些情况的投资者、业主、贷款人和税收当局的要求而产生的。 但是,会计期间惯例也确实引起了一些麻烦。首先,应该认识到,报告的期间越短,越需要估计和判断。在短的期间内,完成的交易会很少,应计和递延项目比较多,在账目中考试应计和递延项目因素增加了财务报表的主观性。此外,短期财务报表会对公司长远的前景产生误导性的印象。资产负债表是表示一个公司一时的财务状况的“快照”,在资产负债表公布前或公布后,公司的财务状况会有巨大的变化。其结果是资产负债表在会计年度停止的那天就过时了,在它发表的时候,它只具有历史意义了。