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惩罚性损害赔偿论文及附录

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惩罚性损害赔偿论文及附录惩罚性损害赔偿论文及附录 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 前言 这些年来,我国发生了一系列涉及食品安全事故、安全生产事故、环境污染事故、证券和合同欺诈等方面的违法事件。这是因为商业行为和其他一些社会行为正越来越多的被当事者以成本、效益等指标予以计算了。那么面对这些强大的既得利益者,仅仅让其对自身不法行为所造成的损害承担补偿性的责任己经不足以防止类似的不法行为的再度发生。但是惩罚性损害赔偿制度却为解决上述问题提供了理论和制度上的可能性。 惩罚性损害赔偿是英美法系国家广泛采用的一种民事责任形式,也是现代英美法上特有的民事法律救济...
惩罚性损害赔偿论文及附录
惩罚性损害赔偿论文及附录 辽宁工程技术大学 前言 这些年来,我国发生了一系列涉及食品安全事故、安全生产事故、环境污染事故、证券和欺诈等方面的违法事件。这是因为商业行为和其他一些社会行为正越来越多的被当事者以成本、效益等指标予以计算了。那么面对这些强大的既得利益者,仅仅让其对自身不法行为所造成的损害承担补偿性的责任己经不足以防止类似的不法行为的再度发生。但是惩罚性损害赔偿制度却为解决上述问题提供了理论和制度上的可能性。 惩罚性损害赔偿是英美法系国家广泛采用的一种民事责任形式,也是现代英美法上特有的民事法律救济制度。惩罚性赔偿制度较好地发挥了其补偿与惩罚功能,对于遏制恶意民事不法行为起到了良好的作用。在英美法国家得到了广泛的应用。然而,在我国,近些年来的民事立法中虽然有类似于惩罚性损害赔偿的一些规定,但还远没形成一项比较完善的法律制度。因此有必要对惩罚性损害赔偿制度进行研究和分析,特别是对其适用范围、适用条件和影响因素方面的探讨,阐述在我国建立惩罚性损害赔偿制度的必要性并且结合我国得现行立法、社会现实状况等,提出合理化建议来完善我国惩罚性损害赔偿制度。 - 1 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 1 惩罚性损害赔偿概述 1.1 惩罚性损害赔偿的概念 在英美法系国家中,惩罚性损害赔偿,也称为示范性赔偿、报复性赔偿,是指被告因其主观上的恶意或重大过失,在向原告承担了补偿赔偿责任的基础上,再额外承担一定数额的惩罚性损害赔偿金。在我国,中国社会科学院法学研究所法律辞典编委会将惩罚性赔偿定义为:指加害人的行为(包括债务不履行行为和侵权行为)出于故意或者在一般情况下有逃脱责任的可能,法院在判决加害人承担补偿性赔偿的前提下,判决其承担全部损害之 ?外的一定金额的赔偿。 1.2 惩罚性损害赔偿的起源与发展 惩罚性损害赔偿作为一项法律制度,它有着极为绵长的历史发展历程,关于惩罚性赔 ?偿的起源问题,存在很多不同的看法。有人认为,它最早起源于古巴比伦的法律,因为有人认为多倍的赔偿早在两千多年前的古希腊、罗马和埃及就已采用。但是,普遍还是认为,英美法中的惩罚性赔偿最初起源于1763年英国法官hrd Camden审理的Hucklev(Money_案。美国则是在1784年的Genayv(Norris一案中最早确认了这一制度。17世纪至18世纪,惩罚性损害赔偿主要适用于诽谤、恶意攻击、私通、诬告、不法侵占住宅、占有私人文件、非法拘禁等使受害人遭受名誉损失及精神痛苦的案件。至19世纪中叶,惩罚性赔偿不仅适用于侵权案件,也适用于合同案件。并且被法院所普遍采纳。上世纪以来,经济发展迅速,各种不合格的商品对消费者产生损害的案件也频繁发生,惩罚性损害赔偿开始遂逐渐适用于产品责任领域,同时赔偿的数额也不断提高。随着时间的推移,惩罚性损害赔偿制度也不断的发展,它的功能也不断得以扩展,涵盖了另外一些功能,如促进受害人指责不法行为,这样更好地维护了社会的公正和秩序,补偿了受害人的诉讼费用等。 ?布莱克(法律辞典(北京:法律出版社,2003(第367页( ?邢希萌(浅谈惩罚性损害赔偿制度的完善(北方经贸,2007((6)(第25页( - 2 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 1.3 惩罚性损害赔偿的功能 1.3.1 威慑或遏制功能 威慑或遏制功能从本质上来说就是预防功能,也是惩罚性赔偿的首要功能。当然其他民事责任也具有遏制功能,对于致害人来说,因为要承担民事责任,导致了自己财产的减少,同样有制裁和遏制的效果,但是它不能更好的遏制致害人致害行为的再次发生。而惩罚性赔偿正好与此相反,不是为了赔偿,主要是为了遏制致害人的行为在将来不再发生, ?至于补偿则在其次了。 1.3.2 惩罚功能 惩罚功能就是通过对不法行为人的财产做出制裁,强制他交出相当数额的钱财,使他在经济利益上遭受损失。这是惩罚性赔偿制度的一项基本功能。传统的补偿性赔偿只要求赔偿受害人的全部经济损失,而惩罚性赔偿则通过给不法行为人强加更重经济负担来惩罚不法行为,从而达到更好的制裁效果。 1.3.3 安抚功能 传统的补偿性赔偿往往只顾及物质方面损失的赔偿,而情感伤害由于无法以金钱价额予以计算而往往受到忽视,不被考虑。但是有些侵害不止造成了物质损害,更重要的是给被害人带来的精神方面的极大痛苦。这种痛苦的情感如果得不到安抚,那么他就有可能去 ?自行报复,这很容易破坏正常的秩序。而惩罚性赔偿则不仅完全补偿了被害人物质方面的损失同时又通过对致害人的额外金钱制裁,后果越严重惩罚越严厉,这就能很好的安抚被害人痛苦的情感。社会也就不会因个人的自力救济而陷于混乱。 1.3.4 激励功能 在补偿性损害赔偿情况下,因为不是太高的赔偿金,或者是诉讼成本问题,往往造成回报还不及投入,大多数被害人会不太愿意提起诉讼。而惩罚性赔偿则正好补充了这方面不足。让侵害人付出的的赔偿不仅限于其对受害人造成的损害,且随着主观恶性的增大,赔偿数额也增加,这样把多于损害部分赔偿额给付原告,通过给予物质上的奖励,就可以 ?金福海(惩罚性赔偿制度研究(重庆:法律出版社,2008(第89页( ?王立峰(论惩罚性赔偿(上海:法律出版社,2006(第70页( - 3 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 很好的激励受害人提起诉讼。因为,毕竟致害人的恶劣行为要想能受到惩罚,还是依赖于受害人提起诉讼的。而这种激励诉讼机制就是惩罚性赔偿制度能够发挥作用的根本所在。 1.4 惩罚性损害赔偿制度的必要性 我国有多部法律及有关司法解释都已规定了一些惩罚性赔偿制度,对于保护民事主体的权利、惩罚违法行为人、遏制类似违法行为的再次发生、建立良好的市场公平秩序发挥了重要的作用。但是我国目前的惩罚性赔偿制度还存在诸多缺陷,这就在一定程度上限制了惩罚性赔偿功能的发挥。因此,我认为,进一步完善我国的惩罚性赔偿制度是非常必要的。第一,规定惩罚性损害赔偿是维护社会平等公平,完善我国损害赔偿制度的必然要求。第二,惩罚性损害赔偿是维护社会公共利益,完善经济法具体责任的重要方面。第三,从现实需要来说,我国亟待建立惩罚性损害赔偿制度。 当然有的学者可能有不同看法,认为我国民法和《消费者权益保护法》及司法解释的 ?相关赔偿制度已经足够了,不需要惩罚性损害赔偿制度。可是,在几年前的“东芝事件”中,同样的事件东芝公司对美国和对中国消费者采取了截然不同的态度,我认为这非常值得我们思考,究其原因,必然与两国法律的不同规定有关系。当然,这种惩罚性的高额赔偿并 ?不排除被滥用的可能性,社会上存在的“王海现象” 就是证明。但是我们不能只看现象,也要去分析事物的本质,王海现象的背后也许是能够看出一个所谓“讼棍”的刁民形象,但是不能否认的是,假冒伪劣猖撅,市场行为和秩序的混乱,商业道德的沦丧这些才是王海现象背后的实质性原因。可以设想:如果没有这些不法行为和这么多的假冒伪劣产品,王海等人又怎么能够或者去何处以打假来谋利呢?所以,我觉得对于我们这样一个法治还不健全同时又想急切实现经济富足、社会和谐的发展中国家来说,当它的法律系统在面对恶意的扰乱社会秩序,严重违反商业道德和法律,无视他人的合法权益的不法行为人时,只有对其施以重法才可以惩罚加害人并且威慑潜在侵害人,才能化解潜在的风险并且更好的补偿受害者。在这个惩罚违法行为的过程中,公共的执法部门必须充分发挥其应有的作用。同时应该对普通大众的诉讼热情予以充分的调动,毕竟,对侵害人的惩罚要依赖于普通大众的诉讼。那么,怎样才能调动大众的积极性呢,我认为,莫过于利益的诱惑。而惩罚性损害赔偿正是以这样的一种经济利益的诱惑,为普通大众提供了一种法律所认可的回 ?报,从而会大大的提高诉讼率,也能更好的惩罚侵害人并且威慑潜在侵害人。可见,建立惩罚性损害赔偿制度的必要性。 ?金福海(惩罚性赔偿制度研究(北京:法律出版社,2008(第10页( ?曾世雄(损害赔偿法原理(北京:中国政法大学出版社,2009(第32页( ?金福海(惩罚性赔偿制度研究(北京:法律出版社,2008(第44页( - 4 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 2 我国惩罚性损害赔偿的立法现状及缺陷 2.1 立法现状 2.1.1 《消费者权益保护法》和《合同法》的规定 1993年制定的《消费者保护法》第49条规定:经营者提供商品或者服务有欺诈行为的,应当按照消费者的要求增加赔偿其受到的损失,增加赔偿的金额为消费者购买商品的价款或者接受服务费用的一倍。这条规定被很多学者认为是我国惩罚性赔偿的典型规定。 1999年3月15日通过,于1999年10月1日起施行的《中华人民共和国合同法》113条第2款规定:经营者对消费者提供商品或者服务有欺诈行为的,依照《中华人民共和国消费者保护法》的规定承担损害赔偿责任。 2.1.2 《食品安全法》的规定 近几年来,我国频繁的发生食品安全事件,比如说“红心鸡蛋事件”、“多宝鱼事件”、“毒奶粉”,充分说明了在我国食品安全问题已经成为了严重影响公众健康和生命安全的社会问题。为了市场秩序,稳定消费者信心,2009年2月28日,十一届全国人大第七次会议审议并通过了《中华人民共和国食品安全法》。该法第96条和第97条分别规定了违反《食品安全法》的所要承担的民事责任以及“民事赔偿先行”原则。该法第96条规定:违反本法规定,造成人身、财产或者其他损害的,依法承担赔偿责任。生产不符合食品安全标准的食品或者销售明知是不符合食品安全标准的食品,消费者除要求赔偿损失外,还可以向生产者或者销售者要求支付价款十倍的赔偿金。第97条规定:违反本法时,应当承担民事责任和缴纳罚款、罚金,其财产不足以同时支付时,先承担民事赔偿责任。 2.1.3 《侵权责任法》的规定 历经七年才审议通过的《侵权责任法》由于其产生过程曲折而漫长,使得学术界对其充满期待,不少学者提出在故意或重大过失侵权的诸多领域均设立惩罚性赔偿责任。再加上近些年来我国产品责任、侵犯知识产权、环境侵权、医疗侵权等事件层出不穷,人民大众也饱受其苦,使普通民众也对侵权责任法的制定充满期待。但面临着学界与民众的双重期待,立法者依然还是选择了比较稳妥、保守的态度,将侵权责任法中惩罚性赔偿的适用 - 5 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 范围限定在产品责任领域。2010年7月1日施行的《侵权责任法》第47条规定:“明知产品存在缺陷仍然生产、销售,造成他人死亡或者健康严重损害的,被侵权人有权请求相应的惩罚性赔偿。” 2.1.4 《关于审理商品房纠纷案件适用法律若千问题的解释》 2003年最高人民法院在《关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第8条规定:具有下列情形之一,导致商品房买卖合同目的不能实现的,无法取得房屋的买受人可以请求解除合同,返还己付购房款以及利息、赔偿损失,并可以请求出卖人承担不超过已付房款一倍的赔偿责任:(一)商品房买卖合同订立后,出卖人未告知买受人又将该房屋抵押给第三人;(二)商品房合同订立后,出卖人又将该房屋出卖给第三人。该司法解释第9条规定:出卖人订立商品房买卖合同时,具有下列情形之一,导致合同无效或者被撤销、解除的,买受人可以请求返还己付购房款及利息、赔偿损失,并可以请求出卖人承担不超过已付购房一倍的赔偿责任:(一)故意隐瞒没有取得商品房预售许可证明的事实或者提供虚假商品房预售许可证明;(二)故意隐瞒所售房屋己经抵押的事实;(三)故意隐瞒所售房屋已经出售给第三人或者为为拆迁补偿安置房屋的事实。 该项司法解释实际上是消法第49条的规定在商品房买卖合同纠纷中作了具体规定,是对消法第49条的细化和补充。 2.2 存在的缺陷 从上述立法的介绍中,我们可以看出,我们国家的法律系统在立法层面已经肯定了民事责任的制裁功能,并且也有了很多的立法尝试。但是,尽管我国已有多部法律规定惩罚性赔偿责任,但是我国的惩罚性损害赔偿制度在适用范围、适用条件以及数额计算等方面仍存在不少缺陷。 第一,我国惩罚性赔偿适用局限于产品责任,虽然产品责任领域是恶性侵权事件频发的领域,但在现实生活中,知识产权领域、环境侵权领域、甚至合同领域也存在一些主观恶性极大的侵权行为,如果不对这些行为适用惩罚性赔偿,将难以实现对受害者的救济。因此,我国立法应考虑逐步扩大惩罚性赔偿的适用范围,以充分发挥该制度的惩罚与遏制功能。 第二,我国惩罚性赔偿适用条件规定过于原则,不易于操作。以侵权责任法第47条 - 6 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 为例,“明知产品存在缺陷仍然生产、销售,造成他人死亡或者健康严重损害的,被侵权人有权请求相应的惩罚性赔偿。”如何证明经营者“明知”产品有缺陷而销售就是摆在法官和律师面前的棘手问题,如果解决不好这个问题,将直接影响适用惩罚性赔偿的效果。还有《消费者权益保护法》规定经营者只有在实施了“欺诈行为”时才可以适用惩罚性赔偿。欺诈是故意的行为,但故意的行为并不都是欺诈。因此,其他的故意或重大过失的行为不适用惩罚性损害赔偿。许多学者都认为这种规定的条件显得过于狭窄。 第三,我国惩罚性赔偿金额的计算方式不合理。我国惩罚性赔偿金额的计算采取的是固定金额模式,这样的计算方式虽然易于操作,但弊端也是显而易见的。固定金额模式下,生产者可预先计算出违法成本,这导致惩罚性赔偿根本不能实现预设的功能。另一方面,我国惩罚性赔偿金的计算基点也同样存在问题,它并不是以受害者的实际受损为计算基点,而是以消费者接受的产品或服务的价格作为基点,这往往导致了惩罚性赔偿的金额过低,根本实现不了惩罚、遏制等功能。当然,为了防止赔偿的数额过高,可以设定一定的数额上限。 - 7 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 3 惩罚性损害赔偿制度的完善 3.1 扩大惩罚性损害赔偿的适用范围 目前我国规定的惩罚性赔偿责任适用范围是非常有限的,这不足以充分发挥惩罚性赔偿制度的功能。为此,我认为在民事其他领域都应该扩大惩罚性赔偿的适用。 3.1.1 扩大在侵权领域的适用 首先,我国侵权责任法中已经规定了受害者可就产品缺陷导致的损害主张惩罚性赔偿,但是该项规定过于原则,可操作性不强。如受害者在实践中很难证明“明知”产品有缺陷而生产或销售。为了解决该问题,可参考一些国家或地区的做法,列举出一些具体的类型化行为,如公然的违反产品生产安全标准;采取低于生产同类产品的生产者水平的测试和生产标准和程序;在产品投入市场后,对于已知的缺陷未采取任何的补救措施或者存在掩盖瑕疵的行为;有严重的欺诈行为;曾经有过生产或销售瑕疵产品的不良历史等。消费者可以通过这些行为的存在来证明生产者或经营者的主观过错。 其次,侵犯知识产权的行为在我国也十分猖獗,权利人深受其害,甚至我国的国际声誉都受到了影响。由于侵权行为隐蔽性高,难以预防,客体易受侵犯,侵权人获利高而权利人损失难以计算。我认为,在知识产权领域引入惩罚性赔偿制度具有很强的现实合理性。 再次,现实生活中往往存在这样一些殴打、辱骂他人的行为,它对受害人未造成严重身体伤害,但对受害人的心理造成很大伤害。对于这类行为是不能通过刑事或行政责任来制裁的,受害者只能通过提起民事诉讼的方式来实现救济。最高院作出的《精神损害赔偿司法解释》第8条规定:因侵权致人精神损害,但未造成严重后果,受害人请求赔偿精神损害的,一般不予支持,人民法院可以根据情形判令侵权人停止侵害,恢复名誉,消除影响,赔礼道歉。因侵权致人精神损害,造成严重后果的,人民法院除判令侵权人停止侵害,恢复名誉,消除影响,赔礼道歉等民事责任以外,可以根据受害人一方的请求判令其赔偿相应的精神损害抚慰金。根据该规定,受害人因恶意侵权行为而受到精神损害是可以主张精神损害赔偿的,但前提必须是造成严重后果。但何为“严重后果”,该解释并未作出规定,这就给受害人在司法实践中证明自己的损害严重程度带来困难,最后往往无法获得精神损害赔偿金。为此,我认为,可以在恶意侵犯人身权领域引入惩罚性赔偿责任。 - 8 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 3.1.2 扩大在合同领域的适用 尽管最高人民法院在《关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第8条中对商品房买卖合同过程中的加倍赔偿做了规定,但它的实质是消法第49条在商 这并没有为合同领域引入惩罚性赔偿。我认为,虽品房买卖纠纷中的细化与补充,实质上 然惩罚性赔偿责任一般是不适用于合同领域的。但合同领域的一些特殊行为也是可以适用惩罚赔偿金的。比如,惩罚性赔偿可以在交易双方力量不对等的合同中应用,例如供电合 ?同、供水供气合同等。因为这类合同的一方为垄断企业,且订立时多是采取格式合同或格式条款,当事人的选择权不大。另外,垄断一方对合同的履行有绝对控制权,在违约举证上有绝对的优势,仅适用违约责任不足以制裁其故意违约行为。其次,如果违约行为同时构成侵权行为,对受害者的生命、健康等人身权造成侵害,也可以适当地适用惩罚性赔偿责任。 综上所诉,笔者认为,除了产品缺陷责任外,还可以在知识产权领域与恶意侵犯人身权领域规定惩罚性赔偿责任。并就合同领域的特殊情形规定惩罚性赔偿责任,一般违约责任不适用惩罚性赔偿金。另外,针对我国近年来出现的严重环境污染侵权事件以及减少医患纠纷的角度来看,在环境侵权,医疗侵权中引入惩罚性赔偿都具有非常积极的意义。 3.2 完善惩罚性损害赔偿的适用条件 在美国,欲使被告承担惩罚性损害赔偿,“被告的行为必须是具有恶意的、欺诈的、邪恶动机的、鲁莽的、轻率的或强制的,致使侵害情节加重。”美国法院决定是否惩罚性赔偿时,通常从客观要件和主观要件两个方面考虑。参考美国关于惩罚性赔偿的适用, 我国惩罚性赔偿的要件应从如下几方面考虑: 首先主观方面:与一般民事责任相比,惩罚性赔偿责任需要充分考虑侵权人的主观过错程度,即只有主观上有严重过错的行为才能适用惩罚性赔偿。现行《消法》规定经营者主观上有“欺诈”才可以适用惩罚性损害赔偿,却显得过于狭窄,并不能满足现实的需要。实际生活中有许多行为本不具备欺诈性质,但其危害之严重甚至比欺诈行为更需要惩罚。另外一些重大过失行为,其恶劣后果也不亚于故意侵权行为。因此,我认为,我国在适用惩罚性损害赔偿时应以故意或重大过失作为其主观条件,使这一制度有更大的用武之地。 ?金福海(惩罚性赔偿制度研究(北京:法律出版社,2008(第111页( - 9 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 其次,客观方面:被告的行为应该是已严重违反社会道德水准, 超出人们可容忍的范围的行为。而且惩罚性赔偿责任的成立要求必须有损害事实的存在,由于惩罚性赔偿是要求侵害人承担超过一般补偿数额的高额赔偿,是对故意侵权行为人加重适用的赔偿责任,因此,这就要求这种损害事实一般要达到一定程度,对直接损害而言,要求具有严重的后果,对间接损害来说,要达到影响的范围广泛和重大。另外,被告造成的损害也必须是基于其故意或重大过失的心理状态下的行为造成的。 3.3 惩罚性损害赔偿额的量定 惩罚性损害赔偿的首要功能在于威慑,而威慑应当适度,而适度的关键在于确定赔偿额度,那么如何确定赔偿数额呢,惩罚性损害赔偿额的确定是比较复杂的,要考虑的因素很多,并不能简单的以一个固定倍数标准适用于所有的判例中。比如,我国《消费者权益保护法》第49条中关于一倍惩罚性损害赔偿额的确定就是比较僵化的,不够合理的,在实际生活中往往并不能对违法行为人起到真正的惩罚与威慑的作用。当然,如果赔偿远远高于损害,威慑也将会过度,加害人会把他们的行为缩至不适当的程度,即使所得利益超过了损害,他们也不会从事该行为,结果导致有益行为将被阻止。 在英美法中,对惩罚性损害赔偿金进行裁决的权力由陪审团行使。陪审团在案件中充分行使自由裁量权,并考虑被告加害行为的特点,原告损害的情况及被告的资产状况来决定赔偿金的大小。我国台湾地区的《消费者保护法》第五十一条规定:“消费者不仅得就企业经营者之故意行为,请求原损害额三倍以内之惩罚性赔偿金,同时对于因企业经营者过失行为所致之损害,消费者也得请求原损害额一倍以下的惩罚性赔偿金。”由此可见,为赔偿数额设定一个上限是该制度发展的趋势。这样的更为科学、合理,也更为灵活。我国的立法改革应充分借鉴这一思路做法,对惩罚性损害赔偿数额的确定设立一些参考因素。这样法官可以在最高赔偿限额内,通过考察加害人的财务状况、加害人的主观恶性程 ?度、加害人通过加害行为已经或者可能获得利益的多少等因素,确定最终的赔偿数额。这样,既体现了惩罚性赔偿制度对经营者不同程度欺诈行为的惩罚与威慑,又能针对不同的 案件情况实现该制度激励消费者维权的功能。 ?陈聪福(美国法上惩罚性赔偿金制度(台湾:台湾本土法学出版社(2006(第165页( - 10 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 4 结论 通过对本论文相关资料的搜集和相关理论的研究,本文详细分析了我国惩罚性损害赔偿制度的立法现状,从中找出的疏漏与不足,并提出笔者对我国惩罚性损害赔偿制度的一些完善措施和建议。通过本文可以看出,我国的惩罚性损害赔偿制度在适用范围、适用条件及赔偿额的确定方面还存在着很多不规范的地方,需要通过立法加以改进。特别是现在我国惩罚性赔偿的适用范围过于狭窄,无法很好地解决当下不断发生的种种不公平事件。这说明了现实生活的需求已经对惩罚性损害赔偿在我国的构建和适用提出了新的要求。我相信,随着理论的发展、法规的完善,惩罚性损害赔偿制度在我国社会生活中必将起到更重要的作用。 - 11 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 致谢 该这篇毕业论文经过几个月的洗礼,终于吹响了它的集结号。从选题到定稿,每一个细节都渗透着各位老师和同学的帮助,对此我充满了感激之情。 感谢我的指导教师,对这篇文章一字一句仔细的推敲,为我提供很多的参考资料,提供给我那么多宝贵的意见和建议,才使得我的论文有今天的成果。 感谢法学教研室的各位老师在开题、格式、框架结构等方面给予我的指导和帮助,使得这篇文章更加完善规范。 衷心祝愿各位老师身体安康、永远幸福~ - 12 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 参考文献 ,1, 李昌麒,许明月(消费者保护法[M](北京:法律出版社,1997( ,2, 王成(侵权损害赔偿的经济分析[M](北京:中国人民大学出版社,2002( ,3, 王立峰(关于惩罚性损害赔偿的一些思考[M](北京:法学出版社,2006( 4, 曹明德(环境侵权法[M](北京:法律出版社,2000( , ,5, 丁晓军(影响惩罚性赔偿适用的几个因素[J](陕西经贸学院学报,2002,(23)( ,6, 张爱军(对惩罚性赔偿制度的比较法观察[J](忻州师范学院学报,2003,(42)( ,7, 寿厉冰,陈乃新(略论惩罚性赔偿的经济法性质[J](法商研究,2002,(25)( ,8, 史浩明,钟锴(论惩罚性赔偿的性质与功能[J](美中法律评论,2006,(44)( ,9, 徐爱国(英美侵权行为法[M](北京:法律出版社,1999( ,10, 王利明(违约责任论[M](北京:中国政法大学出版社,2001( ,11, 王利明(民法典侵权责任法研究[M](北京:人民法院出版社,2003( ,12, Steven Shavell. 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New Delhi: DelhiL awHouse, 1982( ,13, 张文显(二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究[M](北京:法律出版社,1996( ,14, 曾世雄(损害赔偿法原理[M](北京:中国政法大学出版社,2001( - 13 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 附录A 惩罚性损害赔偿 米切尔 史蒂芬 1 威慑的基本理论 在这里,我们总结的基本原则和责任威慑经济理论假设,每当一方造成损害的,他将被 一点我们要关注的是,适当的大小损失所造成的伤害,要保护当事处罚是肯定的。在这个有 人的合法权益。我们首先讨论这一点的时候当责任是严格责任造成了不管照顾,然后当责任是基于规则”当疏忽承担损害是只有当如果他们是错误的。读者熟悉的基本理论和责任威慑想直接进行第3节。 最好的赔偿损害下平等严格责任这里有两个基本的原因。第一个问题是预防措施的水平,在这个问题中要从事人的角度来解读一般。如果赔偿金的社会危害,是有正确的动机; 当且仅当成本低于预期造成伤害降低时他们要采取预防措施可能导致投资危害。然而,如果损害赔偿达不到伤害,预防措施将会不足,若超过伤害,预防损害会过度。 它的第二个原因是个人和公司参与冒险活动,可取的赔偿损害包括当事人的平等程度的活动到什么程度。例如,一个人开车越快, 无论他驾驶水平如何,他就很可能造成越多的事故,。同样, 经销公司经销更多的单位生产的产品, 无论是安全的特性的产品都将会造成的产品越多的事故。 如果赔偿金的社会危害,是有正确的激励从事冒险活动。特别是,因为个人的期望损失导致伤害他参与活动相等的预期, 当且仅当他获得利益的活动产生的预期超过伤害时他会参加这个活动。同样的,一个公司将生产的产品,包括预期的伤害,当且仅当它的价值体现在客户的意愿来支付它的全部成本时,产品的生产数量会超过它的生产标准 。然而,如果达不到伤害,损害程度将会损害社会过量,超过伤害,活动水平将会很低。 现在让我们回到过失的规则来考虑, 假设过失标准设定等于的最优水平的预防措施,在一方的水平的措施低于给定的标准时不可粗心大意,必须说支付赔偿金。如果损害平等,当事人过失伤害将决定过失标准采取适当的预防措施。然而,如果不到伤害,损害当事人可 - 14 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 能不符合标准。假设疏忽的决心是准确的。如果损失超过伤害,双方将有一个激励去满足规范,没有理由超过它。 例如,法院可以确定过失标准错误评估当事人的行为。因为这样的错误的风险,政党可能鼓励承担更多的措施, 就会有错误的疏忽的决定,在3700年的惩罚性赔偿中会有767项是为减少错误,他们会发现过失。如果错误引导当事人的机会采取预防措施,过度水平的提高将会加剧损害这一问题。 下一个考虑关系的活动量损害和疏忽下的规则是在缺乏错误、疏忽规则的情况下引起党派参与社会上过度冒险的活动范围。这是因为,一旦一方以预防过失标准来要求,他将不会承担任何危害。例如,一个人如果按照合理的规章制度行驶,如果有人驾驶对其造成伤害,那么驾驶者必须支付任何伤害,因此。然而,由于有时会发现错了,他们会承担损害赔偿责任。原则上,这可能会改善这个问题过量的承担风险的疏忽规则。它也是可能的,然而,找到当事人过失错误会使他们的造成损坏超过他们所引起的危害,这种效果,如果它发生,将加剧损害水平的提高。 最佳前面的讨论表明,对这个问题的回答理论上正确的,没有规定什么级别的损害是的疏忽规则,这些问题没有一个是简单,为了简单起见,我们会承担损害赔偿规则下的最优过失都是平等的,严格责任制度。因此,我们一般会区分这两个规则将在下面进行讨论。 顺带一提,我们要注意的结论是,损失应该等于伤害我们的隐含假设,即双方都是风险中性的依赖。如果i侵害人是风险规避,不能购买责任保险,损害赔偿的最佳水平往往是利大于弊低,既减少风险的征收和赔偿,因为不需要那么高的行为适当的诱导侵害人。但是,如果一样,是现实的,责任保险是可用的,损害赔偿的最佳水平仍然相等的伤害。此外,公众持有的公司应被视为约为风险中性 ,这意味着损失应等于伤害 , 如果他们的股东有充分多元化的投资组合,这时候,如果不是通常情况下,会是这样。 我们接下来的回合各种威慑的理由制定了过多的损害赔偿,也就是说,征收惩罚性赔偿。第一步,也是最重要的一步时,就产生了加害人可能逃避责任情况。 - 15 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 2 最优损害时加害人可能逃避责任 过量的赔偿金总额超过补偿性损害赔偿是可以被贴上的惩罚性赔偿的。因此,惩罚性赔偿的最优水平是赔偿金总额的最优水平减去补偿性损害赔偿。如果伤害是100000美元,被发现的概率是0.25,这意味着承担赔偿金总额乘数4赔偿金总额400000美元,因为要100000美元的赔偿金总额,代表剩下的是300000美元的最优的惩罚性赔偿的金额。这个数量也可以被描述为一个多种危害,这是就等价地转化的补偿性损害赔偿制度而言的。从优化赔偿金总额是h / p、最优的惩罚性赔偿是h / p - h,可以改写的[(1 - p)/ p]h。这个术语的比值支架- 伤害者逃跑的机会撒谎伤害责任承担责任被发现的机会——是惩 惩罚性赔偿是3(= 0.75/0.25倍增器),当乘以100000罚性赔偿的乘数。在之前的例子中, 美元的危害,其产量3700 769 300000美元的惩罚性赔偿的惩罚性赔偿的金额。 注意奖本身就提高惩罚性赔偿的可能性,因此适合的概率会找到一个伤害者承担责任。这种效果应被列入考虑的范畴。一般来说,将会有一定程度的损害的可能性,并给出了产生会导致最优威慑。如果只是补偿性损害赔偿导致过多损失可以以较低的惩罚性赔偿的诉讼。 一般来说,达到适当的威慑,如果对伤害者的制裁必须膨胀能逃避责任,至少可追溯到边沁和已经应用于主体的许多评论员惩罚性赔偿。第一个明确的参考因素逃离责任作为一个理由显然波斯纳惩罚性赔偿的正当性和艾利斯,这已经被开发出来,最彻底Cooter(1989)和Polinsky和Shavell(1998)。 伤害者可以逃脱责任的可能性结果是明确的。如果伤害仅仅是平等的伤害,伤害者没有足够的动机,采取措施将他们参与活动的激励风险就会扩大。为了解决这些问题,将损害强加在这种情况下,伤害者的责任是应该发现伤害者的预期损失与他们引起的伤害相等。这意味着要与损害赔偿金总额乘以互换的可能性,伤害者会发现当他应当承担责任。如果h的形式上,伤害和p是被发现的可能性,应支付责任伤害者 h。(1 / p)= h / p当他发现他的承担预期损失责任,因此将p。(h / p)= h。我们将是指1 / p为总体伤害乘数。例如,如果被发现的概率是0.25,承担赔偿金总额为4(= 1/0.25倍增器), ,如果他发现承担责任伤害者应该会赔偿,总共四倍的伤害所造成的损失的水平。 - 16 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 3 当危害被最佳赔偿低估了 当低估了伤害最佳损害如果低估了所造成的伤害,即使伤害者总是发现当他们负责承担损害,补偿性损害赔偿将是少于伤害和威慑会不足。这种可能性是存在的,因为组成部分通常是排除危害损失。这种不完全的组成部分的危害常提到的一个原因就是征收惩罚性损害赔偿责任。 然而,随着Polinsky和Shavell强调,有一个问题就是用人的惩罚性赔偿代替不完全组成部分的补偿性损害赔偿制度。一个组成部分,即危害可能被排除在补偿性损害赔偿,因为困难和费用,会遇到相应的评价。例如,有痛苦和苦难经历的朋友中有一个人死在补充奖 错误的死亡也变得相当大的,诉讼费用也会增加争议当事人程项,包括人的数量的情况下, 度的心理损失。这很可能是最好的,那么,法律应该是就排除于补偿性损害赔偿制度而言,许多这样的投机元素伤害,即使这些元素是真实的和他们做不想要的稀释遗漏的威慑。出于这些原因如果一个组件的损失从补偿性损害赔偿出发, 因为同样的原因它应该被排除在惩罚性赔偿。 相反, 就偿制度而言如果一个组件的损失应该被包括在补偿性损害赔,尽管这样做需要付出代价, 这样的损失的这个错误的惩罚性赔偿的法律在770年3700的政策通过合并组件得到纠正。只有在惩罚性赔偿包括组件,这仍然会导致部件仍将忽略大多数案件中,只有补偿性损害赔偿是奖励。此外, 测量的一种形式组件的损失可能会更糟糕,因为计算惩罚性赔偿的损害是就不惩治程序和证据要求共同确定的补偿性损害赔偿制度而言的。 4 当加害人的非法收益是社会最优的损害 我们假定这是从各方获得的有害行为触犯数在社会福利中隐含的收益,,而在这里当我们考虑情况时,他们的收益没有被社会福利计算在内,因为他们被视为社会的非法处理点。假设一个人,出于泄恨,冲撞一个人。社会可能认为加害行为乐趣的获得是来自这种行为是社会性违法的。然而,某些行为无意造成的伤害也可能被视为非法的行为,例如,在高速驾驶时的乐趣。 如果加害行为被认为是社会上非法的,它是要阻止的行为就是完全可取的。要做到这一点,损失必须超过犯了法的损害的效用。此外,由于injurer的效用可能比危害更大,损害赔偿要求的水平可能会超过其危害。举例来说,如果从行为非法收益相当于500美元的injurer和伤害是100美元,在至少500美元的损失是必要的威慑行动。这对于惩罚性赔偿的理由第一次注意到埃利斯和Cooter,较正式的治疗,看到Shavell和钻石。 - 17 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 应该指出,虽然,目前的惩罚性赔偿的理由是在范围有限。许多人,社会不良的个人,如果不是大多数,包括一些很可恶的,实施的行为似乎并没有与社会相关联的非法工具,往往这是因为这种行为是不符合造成伤害的意图。同样,大多数的企业行为是不太可能与社会上的非法实用程序关联,因为公司的目标是赚取利润,不会造成危害。 5 最优损害可以讨价还价,各缔约方在卖场中交易 在某些情况下在当事人与潜在的受害者造成伤害前沟通是可能的。这通常是这样,例如,当一个公司打算对他人的著作权侵权,事先的沟通是可能的,潜在的加害人可以与潜在受害者谈判来购买权利。该公司对版权的侵犯审议可以争取授权使用版权材料。 在这种情况下,它可能是社会理想化得状态,促使潜在injurer讨价还价和购买的权 ,通过威胁征收惩罚性赔偿,如果加害人单方面行为造成的伤害。利,从事危害创造行为 这一点显然起源与卡拉布雷西和梅拉梅德(1972年),并进一步比加(1995年),黑线鳕,麦克切斯尼和Spiegel(1990),Kaplow和Shavell(1996)和兰德斯和波斯纳(1981)开发的。 为了扩大在这一惩罚性赔偿的理由,假设损害赔偿是单独雇用的,他们是低估了。潜在加害人可能造成危害时,这样做是不可取的。 因为到加害人获得的利益可能小于所做的伤害,但比预计的低补偿性损害更大。 从低估可能有不良影响的额外损害赔偿。如果加害人可以从不用支付其全部价值的受害者财产,加害者们将致力于努力确定和采取这些财产,受害者会花费精力来保护他们的财产。这种努力是社会浪费,它们是类似与财产盗窃有关。 上述问题是可以避免的,如果是单方面的惩罚性赔偿规定造成危害。如果这种损害级别设置,使总损失大大超过了争议财产的价值,潜在的加害者将被诱导与业主讨价还价 - 这将是更便宜的价格后,同意支付超过赔偿损失。因此,财产将被交换只有在加害者所得利益超过了业主的损失,无谓的采取保护财产的激励措施将被淘汰。 另一个可能的原因聘请惩罚性赔偿,以鼓励谈判和市场交易的关注行政成本。如果单独使用补偿性损害赔偿,伤害和财产采取将倾向于通过法律制度介入的诉讼手段带来。但是,如果惩罚性赔偿被用作一种威胁,伤害和财产利益的转移会更可能发生通过自愿交易,其成本可能会比与诉讼有关的为低。 上述有利于促进惩罚性赔偿来谈判和市场交易的论点明显不适用,当事人之间的谈判 - 18 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 是不可能的,或者如果说它有很大的障碍。举例来说,假设一位迷路的登山者发现了一个无人居住的小屋。他将获得使用该屋和消费在它储存食物他得到的利益大概会超过舱内的所有者承担的损失。但因为没有机会为登山者与业主讨价还价,惩罚性赔偿的威胁可能会阻止使用的机舱,这是不可取的。因此,当双方不能讨价还价,它可能会更好只是聘请代偿损失。此外,即使讨价还价是可行的,可能还有其他的阻碍来阻止有效的交流,如谈判失败的策略行为,依靠补偿性损害赔偿可以证明。 因为许多危害不能作为一个实际问题,事先通过谈判加以解决 - 包括最伤害之间,如汽车事故,陌生人之间的谈判是很重要的,但是谈判的失败是很多的与,目前的惩罚性赔偿的理由往往是不会相关的。 6 优化赔偿和处罚 在讨论了完成惩罚性赔偿来达到适当的威慑力,现在让我们转向处罚的目的。我们对这一制度目标是源于消费者对当事人应该受到的适当的惩罚的渴望。我们等同于一个党的行为,即用其恶意或在何种程度上反映不顾他人的安全的行为。考虑到当事人的受损害的程度,我们希望有一个正确的处罚程度,而高于或低于该程度的处罚,应该逐步从客观上削弱直至满意。 如果当事人是一个个体间的关系,实施惩罚性赔偿的惩罚,他的目标则是简单的:如果评估一个人的行为恶劣程度之后, 适当的惩罚性赔偿的规定,是实现处罚的目的。然而,当被告是一个稳固的,与惩罚性赔偿的角色联系在一起的惩罚涉及许多复杂的目标的角色,这些已被Polinsky和Shavell所考虑。一是可以有不同的方式的目的的惩罚:目标可能是惩罚事务所担任实体,是否有人,不顾到公司内部的表现得体而受到惩罚或者目标可能仅仅是惩罚公司的罪责而不是惩罚个人。我们发现目标前的处罚惩罚性赔偿的概念在过去773年没有吸引力,因为它需要的是一个不属于谁的属下的个人行为,因为人就惩罚后对此事什么反映,要强加什么,最终是为一种人为的法律构造一个点球。尽管有这些保留意见,有可能是人想人格化实体公司和惩罚他们,读者可以弥补对这一定义的重要性,客观地惩罚他或她的头脑。 现在可以考虑替代原因 —惩罚公司作为一种惩罚该负责人的手段。假如这是刑罚的目的,我们转向的问题对其中企业应受惩罚性赔偿的程度,实际上员工也将难逃其责受到处罚的结果。由于公司显然在阻止其雇员,这可能会引起应受惩罚性赔偿惩处行为的兴趣, - 19 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 企业可以预期,寻求通过控制内部规范来制裁这种行为。然而,一些因素表明,对企业征收惩罚性赔偿金将有可能在最初对员工应该受责备处罚的影响较小。 首先,有罪的员工可能不会受到惩罚,因为公司的企业可能很难识别它们。其次,即使在一个公司内部有罪的个人可能被识别但是并处罚企业,对企业征收惩罚性赔偿往往会产生很少或没有对他们的处罚边际效应。也就是说,内部制裁,对这些雇员征收可能不会有太大的作为,该公司的惩罚性比如果公司有承担损害赔偿仅赔偿损失的结果更大,因为后者可能会在公司的结果施加最大内部制裁雇员。此外,也有可能公司不存在的惩罚有罪员工。可能是如此分散,没有一个人认为会被被责备处罚的。即使有这样的人,他们可能已经换了工作,退休,或者少见的死在一个审判中。 另一点是,对企业征收惩罚性赔偿往往是惩罚公司的股东和客户,通常谁都不会认为被惩罚是理应的和应得的。这种不良后果必须权衡惩罚性赔偿的损害的有益作用,促进惩罚的目标。 放大,剩余索取人、股东对公司的利润,显然将变得在更糟的时候被授予惩罚性赔偿的公司。但问题是,他们是否应该受到惩罚。如果一个股东拥有的公司的股票占有很重要的份额,参与了公司的决定,积极的采取行动,那么他的地位会大大与决策权难逃其责的员工不相同,每一个在道德上都应受到谴责。但是,如果一个股东拥有的惩罚性赔偿额占该公司股票微不足道的一小部分,并且是一个没有在该公司的决策过程的直接参与被动的投资者,那么他的损害程度小,如果它存在的话,一个公司的客户也将遭受惩罚性赔偿,如果对企业实施这些损害会导致该公司的产品或服务的价格上涨。这可能是因为企业可能视为做生意的额外费用的惩罚性赔偿。这将由他们承担超出了他们的一般费用成本。因为支付惩罚性赔偿而增加了成本,因此,公司将不得不提高其价格,这将导致他们的客户福利下降。这似乎很明确,然而,顾客会被认为是该被责备的,不是一般的,因为他们没有发挥直接控制公司的一举一动的权利,给他人造成了风险。 因此,假设的惩罚目的就确保公司里的个人犯规受到惩罚,惩罚性赔偿不以直接的方式实现这一目标,也往往会让当事人难逃其责。 损害赔偿从两个不同的威慑和惩罚目标的角度来看一般会有所不同。值得注意的是,威慑力的水平最好很可能是超过这一处罚的最好的目标,如果被发现责任的几率很低,并在惩罚性赔偿威慑的幅度内,因此就需要很严厉的威慑。相反,如果被发现责任的机会很高,因为那时的威慑目的已达到最佳,损失大约等于伤害,但被告的行为据推测为对外损害赔偿,是服务于处罚的目的的。很明显,损害赔偿的最佳整体水平,是结合的两个最佳 - 20 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 水平目标之间社会福利最大化的一种措施。并且单独每一个目标也是独立的。 7 根据最优损害双方的目标 损害的水平是最佳的角度,从这两个独立的刑罚和威慑来讲,目标通常会不同。值得注意的是,损害的水平,最适合的威慑可能超过最优损害那是最好的机会惩罚,那么被损害程度的大小以及责任的制度是必要的,因为惩罚性赔偿的威慑是很高的。相反地,损害水平是最优的惩罚可能更高则被发现的几率越高,因为那将承担以损失为目的的最优威慑是一致的伤害, - 21 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 附录B PUNITIVE DAMAGES A. Mitchell Polinsky Steven Shavell 1 The Basic Theory of Deterrence We summarize here the basic principles of the economic theory of deterrence and liability assuming that, whenever a party causes harm, he will be sanctioned for sure. In this setting, the point on which we want to focus is that the proper magnitude of damages is the harm that the party has caused. We first discuss this point when liability is strict - when injurers are liable for harm regardless of the care they took – and then when liability is based on the negligence rule - when injurers are liable for harm only if they were at fault. Readers familiar with the basic theory of deterrence and liability may want to proceed directly to Section 3. There are two basic reasons why it is best for damages to equal harm under strict liability. The first concerns the level of precautions taken by parties, where the term ‘precautions’ is to be interpreted generally. If damages equal harm, parties will have socially correct incentives to take precautions; they will be induced to invest in precautions if and only if the cost is less than the resulting reduction in expected harm. If, however, damages are less than harm, precautions will tend to be inadequate, and if damages exceed harm, precautions will tend to be excessive. The second reason why it is desirable for damages to equal harm involves parties’ level of activity - the extent to which individuals and firms participate in risky activities. A party’s level of activity affects the magnitude of expected harm, whatever precautions are taken by the party when engaging in the activity. For example, the more miles a person drives, the greater the number of accidents that he is likely to cause, whatever is his level of care when he drives. Similarly, the more units of a product produced and sold by a firm,the greater the number of accidents that will be caused by the product, whatever are the safety features of the product. If damages equal harm, parties will have socially correct incentives to engage in risky activities. In particular, because an individual’s expected damages will equal the expected harm - 22 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 he causes by participating in an activity, he will participate in the activity if and only if the benefit he obtains from the activity exceeds the resulting expected harm. Likewise, a firm will produce a product if and only if its value, as reflected in the willingness of customers to pay for it, exceeds the full cost of its production, including the expected harm that it causes. However, if damages are less than harm, levels of activity will tend to be socially excessive, and if damages exceed harm, levels of activity will tend to be too low. Let us turn now to the negligence rule, under which a party whose level of precautions is below a specified standard is said to be negligent and must pay damages. Assume that the negligence standard is set equal to the optimal level of precautions. Then, if damages for negligence equal harm, parties will decide to comply with the negligence standard and thus will take appropriate precautions. However, if damages are less than harm, parties might not meet the standard. If damages exceed harm, parties will have a more-than-adequate incentive to meet the standard, and no reason to exceed it, assuming that the negligence determination is accurate. Realistically, however, there will be errors in the negligence determination. For example, courts may err in determining the negligence standard or in assessing parties’ behavior. Because of the risk of such mistakes, parties may have an incentive to take greater precautions than they would otherwise, in 3700 Punitive Damages 767 order to reduce the chance that they will incorrectly be found negligent. If the chance of mistake leads parties to take excessive precautions, raising the level of damages will exacerbate this problem. Next consider the relationship between damages and the level of activity under the negligence rule. In the absence of mistakes, the negligence rule will tend to cause parties to participate in risky activities to a socially excessive extent. This is because, once a party takes the precautions required by the negligence standard, he will not be found liable for any harms that he causes. For example, a person who drives with reasonable care will not be found negligent, and therefore will not have to pay for any harm caused by his driving; consequently, he will drive more than is socially desirable. However, because non-negligent parties sometimes will be found liable by mistake, they will sometimes bear damages. In principle, this could ameliorate the problem of excessive participation in risky activities under the negligence rule. It also is possible, however, that finding parties negligent by mistake will result in their bearing damages in excess of the harm they have caused, and thereby overly discourage their - 23 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 participation in activities. This effect, if it occurs, will be exacerbated by raising the level of damages. The preceding discussion shows that there is not a simple, theoretically correct answer to the question of what level of damages is optimal under the negligence rule. We will assume for simplicity that optimal damages under the negligence rule are equal to the harm, as under the rule of strict liability. Accordingly, we generally will not distinguish between the two rules in our subsequent discussion. In passing, we want to note that the conclusion that damages should equal harm depends on our implicit assumption that parties are risk neutral. If injurers are risk averse and cannot purchase liability insurance, the optimal level of damages tends to be lower than harm, both to reduce the imposition of risk on injurers and because damages do not need to be as high to induce injurers to behave appropriately. But if, as is realistic, liability insurance is available, the optimal level of damages remains equal to the harm. Also, publicly-held firms should be treated as approximately risk neutral - implying that damages should equal harm - if their shareholders have well-diversified portfolios, which often, if not usually, will be the case. We next turn to various deterrence-based rationales for setting damages in excess of harm - that is, for imposing punitive damages. The first and most important of these arises when injurers might escape liability. 768 Punitive Damages 3700 2 Optimal Damages when Injurers Might Escape Liability There are several reasons why injurers sometimes escape liability for harms for which they should be liable under a liability rule. First, it may be difficult for the victim to determine that the harm was the result of some party’s act – as opposed to simply being the result of nature, of bad luck. This might be the case, for instance, if an individual develops a form of cancer that could have been caused by exposure to a naturally occurring carcinogen but which was in fact caused by exposure to a man-made carcinogen. Second, even if the victim knows that he was injured by a person’s conduct and not by nature, it might be difficult for him to prove who caused the harm. The owner of a parked car that was damaged might know that it had been struck by another vehicle but not be able to identify the injurer or be able to establish his identity in court. Third, - 24 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 even if the victim knows both that he was wrongfully injured and who injured him, he might not sue the injurer because of the effort and expense a suit would entail. The consequences of the possibility that injurers can escape liability are clear. If damages merely equal harm, injurers’ motivations to take precautions will be inadequate and their incentive to participate in risky activities will be excessive. To remedy these problems, the damages that are imposed in those instances when injurers are found liable should be raised sufficiently so that injurers’ expected damages will equal the harm they cause. This implies that total damages should equal the harm multiplied by the reciprocal of the probability that the injurer will be found liable when he ought to be. Formally, if h is harm and p is the probability of being found liable, the injurer should pay h . (1/p) = h/p when he is found liable; his expected damages therefore will be p . (h/p) = h. We will refer to 1/p as the total damages multiplier. For example, if the probability of being found liable is 0.25, the total damages multiplier is 4 (= 1/0.25), so the injurer should pay, in total, four times the level of harm if he is found liable. The excess of total damages over compensatory damages can be labeled punitive damages. Thus, the optimal level of punitive damages is the optimal level of total damages less compensatory damages. If the harm is $100,000 and the probability of being found liable is 0.25, implying a total damages multiplier of 4, total damages should be $400,000; since $100,000 of this total represents compensatory damages, the $300,000 remainder is the optimal punitive damages amount. This amount also can be described as a multiple of harm or, equivalently, of compensatory damages. Since optimal total damages are h/p, optimal punitive damages are h/p - h, which can be rewritten as [(1 - p)/p]h. The term in brackets - the ratio of the injurer’s chance of escaping liability to the injurer’s chance of being found liable - is the punitive damages multiplier. In the preceding example, the punitive damages multiplier is 3 (= 0.75/0.25), which, when multiplied by the harm of $100,000, yields the 3700 Punitive Damages 769 $300,000 punitive damages amount. Note that the award of punitive damages may itself raise the probability of suit, and therefore the probability that an injurer will be found liable. This effect, when applicable, should be taken into account. In general, there will be a level of damages that, given the resulting probability of suit, will lead to optimal deterrence. Basing punitive damages on the relatively low probability of suit that would occur if just compensatory damages were awarded would tend to - 25 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 lead to excessive damages. The general point that, to achieve proper deterrence, sanctions must be inflated if injurers can escape liability, dates back at least to Bentham and has been applied to the subject of punitive damages by many commentators. The first explicit references to the factor of escaping liability as a justification for punitive damages apparently are Posner and Ellis; this justification has been developed most thoroughly by Cooter (1989) and Polinsky and Shavell (1998). 3 Optimal Damages when Harm is Underestimated Even if injurers are always found liable when they are responsible for harm, if the magnitude of harm is underestimated, compensatory damages will be less than harm and deterrence will be inadequate. This possibility is realistic because hard-to-measure components of harm often are excluded from damages. Such missing components of harm are commonly mentioned as a reason to impose punitive damages. However, as emphasized in Polinsky and Shavell, there is a problem with employing punitive damages as a substitute for missing components of compensatory damages. Namely, a component of harm might be excluded from compensatory damages because of the difficulties and expense that would be encountered in its estimation. For example, were the pain and suffering experienced by the friends of a person who dies included in compensatory awards, the number of claimants in cases of wrongful death could become quite large, and the cost of litigation would also increase as parties contested the degree of their psychological losses. It may well be best, then, for the law to exclude from compensatory damages many such speculative, difficult-to-determine elements of harm, even though these elements are real and their omission does undesirably dilute deterrence. If a component of loss is excluded from compensatory damages for such reasons, arguably it should be excluded from punitive damages for the same reasons. Conversely, if a component of loss should have been included in compensatory damages, despite the costs of doing so, this mistake in legal 770 Punitive Damages 3700 policy should be rectified by incorporating the component in such damages. Including the component only in punitive damages would still result in underdeterrence, for the component would remain omitted - 26 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 in the large majority of cases in which only compensatory damages are awarded. Moreover, the component of loss would probably be more poorly measured as a form of punitive damages because the calculation of such damages is not disciplined by the procedures and evidentiary requirements common to the determination of compensatory damages. 4 Optimal Damages when Injurers’ Gains are Socially Illicit We have implicitly assumed to this point that the gains that parties obtain from committing harmful acts count in social welfare, whereas here we consider the situation when their gains are not counted in social welfare because they are treated as socially illicit. Suppose that a person, out of spite, punches another individual. Society might well deem the pleasure the injurer obtains from this act to be socially illicit. This view of an injurer’s gains would seem especially plausible when the injurer’s utility derives solely from causing harm. However, certain conduct that is not intended to cause harm might also be treated as socially illicit, for instance, driving at high speed for the fun of it. If an injurer’s utility from an act is considered socially illicit, it is desirable for the act to be deterred completely. To accomplish this, damages must exceed the injurer’s utility from committing the act. And since the injurer’s utility could be greater than the harm, the required level of damages might exceed the harm. For instance, if the illicit gain from an act is equivalent to $500 to the injurer and the harm is $100, damages of at least $500 are necessary to deter the act. This justification for punitive damages was first noted by Ellis and Cooter; for more formal treatments, see Shavell and Diamond. It should be noted, though, that the present justification for punitive damages is limited in scope. Many, if not most, socially undesirable acts committed by individuals, including some very reprehensible ones, do not seem to be associated with socially illicit utility; often this is because such acts are not committed with the intention of causing harm. Similarly, most conduct of firms is unlikely to be associated with socially illicit utility, since the goal of firms is to make profit, not cause harm. 3700 Punitive Damages 771( - 27 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 5 Optimal Damages when Parties can Bargain and Transact in the Marketplace In some circumstances it is possible for a party to communicate with a potential victim before causing harm. This would usually be so, for example, when a firm contemplates infringing on another’s copyright. When prior communication is possible, a potential injurer could negotiate in advance with the potential victim to purchase the right to engage in the harm-creating conduct. The firm deliberating about the copyright violation could secure a license to use the copyrighted material. In such circumstances, it may be socially desirable to induce a potential injurer to bargain and purchase the right to engage in harm-creating conduct - by threatening to impose punitive damages if the injurer acts unilaterally to cause harm. This point apparently originated with Calabresi and Melamed (1972) and was further developed by Biggar (1995), Haddock, McChesney and Spiegel (1990), Kaplow and Shavell (1996) and Landes and Posner (1981). To amplify on this rationale for punitive damages, suppose that compensatory damages alone are employed and that they are underestimated. A potential injurer then might cause harm when doing so is socially undesirable - because the benefit to the injurer might be less than the harm done, but greater than the low estimate of compensatory damages. There may be additional undesirable repercussions from underestimating compensatory damages. If injurers can take property from victims without having to pay its full value, injurers will devote effort to identifying and taking such property, and victims will expend effort to protect their property. Such efforts are socially wasteful; they are similar to those associated with the theft of property. The foregoing problems can be avoided if punitive damages are imposed for unilaterally causing harm. If the level of such damages is set so that total damages substantially exceed the value of the property at issue, a potential injurer will be induced to bargain with the property owner - it will be cheaper to pay an agreed upon price than to pay damages. Consequently, property will be exchanged only if the injurer’s benefit exceeds the property owner’s loss, and the wasteful incentives to take and to protect property will be eliminated. Another possible reason to employ punitive damages to encourage bargaining and market - 28 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 transactions concerns administrative costs. If compensatory damages are used alone, harm and the taking of property will tend to be mediated through the legal system by the bringing of lawsuits. But if punitive damages are used as a threat, harm and the shifting of property interests will be much more likely to occur through voluntary transactions, the costs of which are likely to be lower than those associated with litigation. 772 Punitive Damages 3700. The preceding arguments favoring the use of punitive damages to promote negotiation and market transactions obviously do not apply if bargaining between parties is not possible or if there are substantial impediments to it. Suppose, for instance, that a hiker lost in the mountains discovers an unoccupied cabin. The benefit he would obtain from using the cabin and consuming the food in it presumably would exceed the loss borne by the cabin’s owner. But because there is no opportunity for the hiker to bargain with the owner, the threat of punitive damages might discourage the hiker from using the cabin, which would be undesirable. Hence, when parties cannot bargain, it may be better just to employ compensatory damages. Additionally, even if bargaining is feasible, there may be other impediments to efficient exchange - such as bargaining failures due to strategic behavior that could justify relying solely on compensatory damages. Because many harms cannot, as a practical matter, be resolved beforehand by bargaining - including most harms due to accidents between strangers, such as automobile accidents - and because bargaining failures are important, the present justification for punitive damages often will not be relevant. 6 Optimal Damages and Punishment Having discussed the use of punitive damages to accomplish proper deterrence, let us now turn to the punishment objective. We treat this objective as deriving from the desire of individuals to have blameworthy parties appropriately punished. We equate blameworthiness with the reprehensibility of a party’s conduct, that is, with its maliciousness or the extent to which it reflects disregard for the safety of others. Given the degree of a party’s blameworthiness, we assume that there is a correct level of punishment, and that either higher or lower punishment detracts from satisfaction of the punishment objective. When the defendant is an individual, the connection between imposition of punitive - 29 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 damages and accomplishment of the punishment objective is conceptually straightforward: if, after assessing the blameworthiness of an individual’s act, appropriate punitive damages are imposed, the punishment objective is achieved. However, when the defendant is a firm, the role of punitive damages in relation to the punishment objective involves a number of complexities; these have been considered in Polinsky and Shavell. One is that there are different ways of viewing the objective of punishment: the goal may be to punish firms as entities, that is, without reference to whether anyone within a firm behaved inappropriately or was punished as a consequence; or the goal may be to punish firms only as a means of punishing culpable individuals in the firms. We find the former conception of the punishment goal 3700 Punitive Damages 773 unappealing both because it requires a definition of blameworthiness of a firm that is divorced from the behavior of any individuals who are affiliated with it, and because it necessitates believing that people would, after reflecting about the matter, want to impose a penalty on what ultimately is an artificial legal construct. Notwithstanding these reservations, it is possible that people do want to personify firms and punish them as entities, and the reader can make up his or her mind about the importance of this way of defining the punishment objective. Now consider the alternative reason for punishing firms - as a means of punishing blameworthy individuals within them. Supposing that this is the purpose of punishment, we turn to the question of the extent to which the imposition of punitive damages on firms will in fact result in the punishment of blameworthy employees. Because firms clearly have an interest in discouraging culpable conduct by their employees that could give rise to punitive damages, firms can be expected to seek to control such conduct through the use of internal sanctions. However, several considerations suggest that the imposition of punitive damages on firms will have a smaller effect on the punishment of blameworthy employees than might at first be supposed. First, culpable employees may not be punished by firms because firms may have difficulty identifying them. Second, even if culpable individuals within a firm can be identified and punished by the firm, imposing punitive damages on firms often will have little or no marginal effect on their punishment. That is, the internal sanction imposed on such employees may not be much greater as a result of the firm’s bearing both punitive and compensatory damages than if the firm had borne compensatory damages alone, because the latter may result in the firm - 30 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 imposing the maximum internal sanction on the employee. Additionally, there may not even exist culpable employees in the firm to punish: responsibility for a decision may be so dispersed that no one person would be considered blameworthy with respect to it; and even if there are such persons, they may have changed jobs, retired, or died by the time a judgment is rendered. A further point is that imposing punitive damages on firms often penalizes the firms’ shareholders and customers, who ordinarily would not be thought to deserve punishment. This adverse consequence of punitive damages must be weighed against the beneficial effects of such damages in furthering the punishment goal. To amplify, shareholders, as residual claimants on a firm’s profits, obviously will be made worse off when punitive damages are imposed on a firm. The question, however, is whether they should be punished. If a shareholder owns a significant share of a firm’s stock, participated actively in the firm’s decisions and acted egregiously, then his position would be much the same as that of a blameworthy employee with decision-making power; each would be morally culpable. But if a shareholder owns a minuscule fraction of 774 Punitive Damages 3700 the stock of the firm, and was a passive investor with no direct involvement in the firm’s decision-making processes, then his degree of blameworthiness is small, if it exists at all. A firm’s customers also will suffer from the imposition of punitive damages on the firm if such damages cause the prices of the firm’s products or services to rise. This can occur because firms may regard punitive damages as an additional cost of doing business - a cost that, with a positive probability, will be borne by them beyond their ordinary costs. To cover the added cost of punitive damages, therefore, firms will have to raise their prices, which will cause the welfare of their customers to decline. It seems clear, however, that customers would not ordinarily be considered blameworthy, because they do not exert direct control over the actions of firms that pose risks to other persons. Thus, assuming that the punishment objective with respect to firms is to ensure that blameworthy individuals are penalized, punitive damages do not accomplish this objective in a direct way and also tend to penalize parties who are not blameworthy. - 31 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 7 Optimal Damages in the Light of Both Objectives The levels of damages that are optimal from the perspective of the two separate objectives of deterrence and of punishment generally will be different. Notably, the level that is best for deterrence is likely to exceed that which is best for punishment if the chance of being found liable is low and the magnitude of punitive damages necessary for deterrence therefore is high. Conversely, the level that is best for punishment is likely to be higher if the chance of being found liable is high, because then optimal damages for purposes of deterrence are approximately equal to harm, but the reprehensibility of the defendant’s act presumably calls for extra-compensatory damages to serve the punishment objective. - 32 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 附录C 关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷的调查报告 商品房买卖合同惩罚性赔偿责任的适用《关于审理商品房买卖合同纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释》第八、九条规定了出卖人承担惩罚性赔偿责任的5种情形,即出卖人在承担缔约过失责任或违约责任后,买受人还可以同时要求其承担不超过已付购房款一倍的惩罚性赔偿责任。 一、惩罚性赔偿责任的适用 情形,其他违约或欺诈行为均不得适用。(1)可适用惩罚性赔偿责任的仅限于该5种 由于惩罚性赔偿责任是超出实际损害数额的附加性赔偿,目的不在于传统损害赔偿责任中的补偿损失,而是一种惩罚,故只能在法律明文规定情况下适用。 (2)适用的条件。第一,买卖合同已经成立,即必须是双方已经订立了商品房买卖合同。如仅发出要约尚未承诺,双方正处于协商过程中,则不发生惩罚性赔偿责任。这时,仅发生缔约过失责任。第二,合同成立后,发生5种情形,必须是已经导致商品房买卖合同被确认无效或被撤销、解除。第三,买受人无法取得房屋。即因存在法律上的障碍,使买受人无法取得房屋所有权,例如房屋已合法过户给他方。同时满足上述条件才可以适用惩罚性赔偿责任。 发生上述5种情形后,出卖人能够补救,合同仍可实际履行,则不应适用惩罚性赔偿责任。比如说:第一,开发商将已经抵押的房屋出卖或在出卖后又抵押的情形下,如果开发商能够将该抵押及时解除,则即使其确实存在恶意抵押的行为,也不应令出卖人承担惩罚性赔偿责任。第二,订立合同时有故意隐瞒没有商品房预售许可证明或提供虚假证明的行为,但其在起诉前取得商品房预售许可证明的,预售合同有效,也不应令出卖人承担惩罚性赔偿责任。第三,一房二卖情形下,未实际取得房屋的买受人可以请求出卖人承担惩罚性赔偿责任,而实际可以取得房屋的买受人则不能主张,即使出卖人在履行交付房屋的过程中还有其他严重违约行为,而致使合同被解除。比如,出卖人有严重逾期交房、逾期办理产权证等行为而使合同被解除的情况。因为这种责任已经不是因为一房二卖本身造成的后果。 - 33 - 黄晓楠:论惩罚性损害赔偿 (3)如何把握“不超过已付购房款一倍的赔偿责任” 第一,“不超过已付购房款一倍的赔偿责任”与返还利息、赔偿损失可以同时并用,而不是只能选择适用。第二,并不是所有的案件一律赔偿已付购房款一倍的损失,而是应由法院依据个案的不同情形在一倍以内自由裁量。第三,法院在自由裁量时应主要依出卖人的过错程度、情节轻重、所得利益大小、造成损失的大小、社会影响程度等来决定赔偿额。这类似于刑法中量刑时考虑情节的方法。同时,还可以考虑出卖人的承受能力如何,甚至于买受人的经济能力如何。传统的补偿性赔偿责任是为了填补损失,故仅考虑行为造成的损失大小,而不考虑行为人的主观恶意大小、情节等内容,而惩罚性赔偿责任的主要目的在于惩罚,故裁量时考虑的内容不同。 二、惩罚性赔偿之外的损失赔偿 惩罚性赔偿与其他损失的赔偿是可以并存的,并不能因承担了惩罚性赔偿责任而免除开发商的其他赔偿责任。应区分出卖人承担的是合同解除后的损害赔偿责任还是缔约过失责任,二者赔偿损失的具体范围是有所不同的。第八条规定的两种情形属合同解除后的损害赔偿责任,第九条第(一)项属缔约过失责任,第(二)、(三)项则既可能是缔约过失责任也可能是合同解除后的损害赔偿责任。 (1)合同无效或被撤销后缔约过失责任的损失赔偿范围。无效合同或可撤销合同被撤销后,出卖人承担的是缔约过失责任。在缔约过失责任中,赔偿范围限于信赖利益。信赖利益的损失,即当事人因信赖合同的有效而履行,在订立和履行合同中所支出的各种费用和代价,在合同被确认无效或撤销以后,当事人所蒙受的损失。信赖利益与期待利益不同。期待利益是当事人通过合同履行所获得的利益,主要包括履行利益及利润收入。合同被确认无效或被撤销后的信赖利益具体包括:订约费用即合同订立过程中买受人支出的合理费用;履行的费用包括准备履行所支付的费用以及实际履约所支付的费用;为支出上述各种费用所失去的利息;合理的间接损失。所谓间接损失,是指如果缔约一方能够获得各种机会,而在因另一方的过错导致合同不能生效履行的情况下,使这些机会丧失。如买受人因为合理信赖出卖人将依约交付房屋,而没有考虑向另一个开发商买房,从而失去了一笔本可得到的利益。这种机会损失是否合理一般不易确定,故在买卖合同未成立时承担缔约过失责任情形下,不应当包括在信赖利益范围内。但合同成立并实际开始履行后,如买受人已实际交付了大部分房款,此时合同才被确认无效或被撤销,如对受害人的机会损失一概不予保护则有失公平。尤其是如因出卖人的上述严重欺诈行为使合同成立后被确认无效或被撤销,更应保护买受人的合理的机会损失。信赖利益原则上不得超出履行利益,即 - 34 - 辽宁工程技术大学毕业论文 合同被确认无效或被撤销后买受人所获得的信赖利益的赔偿,不得超过合同有效且得到实际履行的情况下所能得到的全部利益,尤其是在考虑赔偿买受人的间接损失的情况下,信赖利益超出履行利益的情形是极可能发生的。 (2)合同解除后的损害赔偿责任范围。可撤销合同买受人未选择撤销而出卖人违约致合同被解除,出卖人承担的是合同解除后的损害赔偿责任。合同解除后的责任是违约责任还是缔约过失责任,尚存争议。《解释》第八、九条规定的出卖人在违约时承担惩罚性赔偿责任,前提是出卖人已无法实际交付房屋,商品房买卖合同被解除。这里的损害赔偿责任只能是合同解除后的损害赔偿责任。违约责任中应适用完全赔偿原则,即因违约方的违约使受害人遭受的全部损失都应当由违约方负赔偿责任,包括积极损失和可得利益的赔偿。第一,积极损失。积极损失即现有财产的减损灭失和费用的支出,它是一种现实的财产损失;可得利益是本来应该得到的利益而没有得到。积极损失具体包括:各种订约费用,一方对另一方作出履行后未获得对价,因标的物交付瑕疵而要承担的全部损失,因履行迟延造成的利息损失和其他财产损失等等。这里的积极损失与合同无效或者被撤销后的信赖利益损失是不完全相同的。第二,可得利益。有观点认为,继续履行合同与合同解除两种情形的违约损害赔偿范围不同,主要不同是:合同解除时不能要求违约人承担可得利益的损失。理由如下:一是认为,由于合同解除的效力是使合同恢复到订立前的状态,而根据合同法第一百一十三条的规定,可得利益只有在合同完全履行时才有可能产生,既然当事人选择了合同解除,就说明当事人不愿意继续履行合同,放弃了可得利益,非违约方就不应该得到合同在完全履行情况下所应得到的利益,即不应该赔偿可得利益。二是认为,合同解除后可得利益难以确定。上述观点有一定道理,但《解释》第八、九条规定的几种情形正是反驳的例证。当一方违约时,实际履行在法律上或事实上已成为不可能,或履行费用过高,实际履行已不必要时,对可得利益不保护是有失公平的。此时非违约方“选择”解除合同并非出于自愿,而是由于违约方的过错不得不解除合同。解除合同完全可能不是因为继续履行对买受人不利。如在一房二卖的情形下,因房价大幅上涨,开发商已将房屋另售他人并已合法过户,而未取得房屋的购房人已付房款数额不大,即使加倍赔偿亦不足以防止开发商因违约而获得巨大的利益。此时,开发商获得超过原买卖合同部分的价款,即可视为买受人的可得利益,该数额是完全可以确定的,应予以保护,否则将纵容开发商违约。 - 35 -
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