科学研究的目的与基本过程

科学研究的目的与基本过程 语言认知研究的基本方法 福建师范大学外国语学院 李荣宝 科学研究的目的与基本过程 科学研究的目的是揭示研究对象的内在的一般的规律并且提出一套能够对研究对象进行充分描写和解释的抽象理论。发展理论是科学研究最根本的目的～尽管～在科学研究过程中～我们要对研究对象的基本状况和变化过程进行全面描述～但是～这种描述只是为了从事物发展过程中找出因果联系～从具体的现象中抽象出能够表达普遍规律的理论。在语言认知研究中～我们首先要对人类语言行为进行全面细致的观察～发现语言行为的基本模式并且由此深入到支配语言行为的内在的机制。 来自于科学研究的理论抽象不一定总是正确的～由于不同的研究者对所观察到的现象或事实可能有不同的理解～因此～在建构理论的过程中就有可能采用不同的逻辑方法。当Chomsky从儿童语言习得的事实中发现～所有的心智健全的儿童都以相同的模式～在相对于他的整个人生来说是相当短的时间里掌握了语言～他们能够听懂自己以前从未听过的语句～也能够说出自己从来没有说过的语句～他认为～只有在儿童具备一套先天就设臵好的句法系统的前提下～他们才能一如此相似的模式和如此快的速度习得语言～于是他提出了关于语言习得的―普遍语法‖理论,Chomsky,1957,。对于同样的现象～Skinner却发展了一套与前者大相径庭的理论。Skinner (1957)认为～儿童的语言习得过程和一般的动物行为没有什么两样～都是刺激-反应-强化的过程。儿童在成长过程中～在成人的语言中正确的语言行为不断地得到强化～有如动物的某种行为通过食物的奖赏得到强化一样。 我们且不论Chomsky和Skinner的理论谁是谁非～就科学研究的目的而言～这两位研究者都是从一般的现象中抽象出一套具有相当描写性和解释性的理论～因而～他们的工作具有明确的科学目的性。在我们强调科学研究的理论目标的同时～我们也应该看到～科学研究过程中具体工作的重要性。没有大量的个案资料和普遍事实的支持～科学的理论就会成为无本之木～但是～我们不能把单纯的对事实和现象的描写当成科学研究。一个研究跨文化交际的人～如果只是罗列不同文化的不同交际行为～那么～他所做的仅仅是技术性的工作～如果～他把所罗列的现象与民族的历史～社会～经济～宗教等深层的因素联系起来并且发现其中的具有普遍性的规律～他的工作便具有了科学研究的性质。同理～语言认知研究中的个案研究～也只是科学研究中的一个部分～它不可形成科学理论～但它却为科学理论假设的提出提供了灵感和经验。 科学研究的这种基本目标决定科学研究的基本过程。首先～科学理论具有继承性～每门学科的研究都有―科学共同体‖所接受的科学―范式‖,Kuhn 语,～尽管～科学研究从某种意义上说是个人行为～但是～这种个人行为必然要以一种集体行为的方式反映出来。正如Kuhn所说:―虽然科学是由个人来研究的～它却本质上是集体的产物～不提及产生它的那些集体～它的特殊的效力和它怎样发展起来的方式都将不会被理解。‖,见江天骥～1984:119-124,。科学研究不是某个研究者头脑发热的时盲目行为～它必须是在现存的理论基础提出新的观点。在方法上必须和前人的研究具有连贯性。因此～科学研究的首要步骤是熟悉相关研究领 域的基本情况～有哪些基本理论～采用哪些研究范式等。只有了解了前人的研究～我们才能延续现存的理论并把自己的理论纳入这个理论体系之中。 科学研究的另一个重要步骤是就相关的研究提出新的科学命或理论假设。这里我们把所有旨在揭示事物发展的因果联系和内在规律并且建立科学理论的研究活动都归为科学研究活动～它不但包括自然科学研究～也包括社会科学。从严格意义上说～它不包括哲学和文学艺术的研究～尽管～在现在人们习惯上把所有研究工作都叫―科研‖。象文学批评这样的活动～更多的是用一些标准和原则～对具体作品的意义和价值进行发掘和评论～而所使用的标准和原则与一定的社会政治制度和文化思潮联系在一起的。社会科学和自然科学的任务是发现规律～提出理论。诸如人口增长和经济发展之间～年龄增长与智力之间～气候条件与人均寿命之间～可能存在某种关系～需要研究者去发现。当一种内在的关系不能被直接观察到时～研究者只能根据现有的理论和经验提出假设。一项重大的发现往往开始于大胆的假设。Chomsky的语言先天论假设就是理论假设的典型例子～在理论上他以唯理主义的观念相联系～在经验上以儿童语的言习得和使用的事实为基础。 一个科学命题或理论假设的基本要求是～它必须是可以被证实或证伪。有些命题由于不能被经验事实检验～因而～没有科学价值。比如～―银河系以外的天体最有可能是外星人居住的地方‖这一假设～由于我们既无法证明这一假设是正确的～也无法证明它是错误的～因此～它是没有价值的。另外～符合事实和经验的概率并不是科学命题的主要标志～象―人都是有生命极限的‖只是一般的知识和经验的陈述～不具有科学命题的性质。但是如果将这个命题换成―在超低温条件下生命只会凝固而不会终止‖就具有科学命题的性质～因为它是一种假设～而且是可被验证的。 当然～不是所有的科学研究都必须提出新理论或假设～对一个业已存在～但尚未得到证实或证伪的理论进行批评或检验也是一种科学研究行为。陈景润对歌德巴赫猜想的验证就是一个典型的例子。近几年在语言认知领域所进行的关于语言习得的实验也是验证性的研究行为。但是～正是这种验证性的研究活动才使假设性的科学命题成为真理。 因此～验证是科学研究的另一个重要环节。一个理论假设如果没有事实证据的支持～永远成不了科学真理。验证就是为理论提供肯定的事实依据。要证明语法结构具有普遍性～就必须提供所有人类语言都遵循完全相同的运算的证据。但是事实上～我们很难毫无遗漏地从所有语言找到全部肯定证据～因而我们经常采取提供否定证据的方法～即只要从一种语言中找到一条不符合理论假设的证据～假设便可以被推翻～这种方法叫证伪～是科学研究中的一种验证方法。另外～当验证涉及到大量的观察对象时～我们通常采取取样研究的方法～即选择有代表性的研究对象进行研究。为了使观察更为有效～科学研究常常用实验方法～对各种无关变量进行控制。 科学研究的最后一个环节是理论的表述。科学研究的根本目标是形成理论～因此～罗列事实不是科学的表述。科学的表述通常用统计学方法～要说明一种条件下的心理反应和另一种条件下的反应有无差异～常用推翻虚无假设的概率表示～要说明两种条件下反应的相关程度～常用相关系数表示～等等。总之～科学的表述要用简练而准确的语言。 语言认知研究的基本方法 总的说来～语言认知研究和其它学科的研究一样可以分为实验研究和非实验研究两类。实验和非实验研究的主要区别在于～前者必须对研究中的有关变量进行控制～而后者没有这种控制。 实验研究:实验研究主要指经过严格设计的对研究对象的观察过程。实验设计主要是确定因变量的指标和观测方法～操纵自变量和控制无关变量～使得因变量能随着自变量的变化而变化～以达 到揭示研究对象内在变化的因果联系。心理学实验是以人为研究对象的～实验中主持实验的人叫主试,experimenter,～作为观察对象的人叫被试,subjests,。 实验研究的主体是实验～但是任何一个有价值的实验都有一定的理论目标～即要么实验者是为了验证自己的理论假设～要么是验证业已存在的理论。在任何情况下实验者都必须有一个实验预期～他必须根据已有的理论和经验～假设某种条件,自变量,和某种变化,因变量,之间可能存在的因果关系～因而有效地选择和操纵自量～以验证预期的变化是否发生。因而～自变量对于因变量的作用必须是敏感的～因变量的指标也应当是具体的和可观测的。同时～被试必须具备实验的同质性,来自相同的样本,～才能使实验结构具有真实性和代表性。 实验研究的主要特点是对研究条件进行控制。这和一般的自然观察和调查研究是不同的～后者一般让观测对象处于一种自然的状态之下。例如～要观测某两个不同年龄段的儿童自发性句法结构差异～自然观察条件下～实验者必须在不被被试觉察的条件下～相关年龄被试所说出的语句,录音或笔记,～观测的场所和时间可比较随意选择。但是～在实验条件下～实验者必须以相同的刺激和相同的条件使两个年龄段被试产生语言～如在实验室面对相同的一幅话进行叙述或评论～被试所产生的话语就是实验结果。 由于实验要求对各种条件进行严格控制～因此～所得到的实验结果一般是比较恒定的～而且这种结果是可以重复出来的。也就说～只要具备相同控制条件～就会出现相同的结果。可重复性也是实验研究一大特点。但是实验研究也有其自身的局限性～一方面～有些自然现象和人类行为是无法进行实验控制的～如人在极度悲痛或兴奋时的行为反应～因为～无论实验手段如何高超～我们也很难模拟出这类极度的情感反应。相反～在自然条件下的观察的结果却是非常真实。另一方面～实验中所设计的各种条件～无论多么真实～和现实之间还是有一定的差异～所以～实验结果的解释应该考虑这种差异。 非实验研究:由于实验研究自身的局限性～在科学研究中～我们还需要有其它手段来获取能为理论提供证据的资料。另外～许多科学假设也是通过非实验研究的观测而提出的。有的研究～只需要获取某种数据～如对一种时尚的态度～只要对相关的人群,population,进行一定规模的调查即可。有些研究的研究样本很难得到～如由于某种大脑创伤而引起的语言障碍。有些研究则根本无法在实验条件下进行～如童年时期被虐待与正常环境中成长的人～在智力和人格特征方面的差异～由于伦理学限制我们人为地设臵任何形式的虐待条件～我们只有对那些在童年时代曾经不幸被虐待过的和那些正常成长的成人进行特定指标的相关分析～来揭示虐待行为所导致的后果。这些研究的一个共同特点就是没有人为地控制研究中的自变量～而只选择某种变量作为研究中的指标。 1, 自然观察:就心理学研究而言～自然观察指对研究被试在自然状态下的自发行为进行描写的。被试所处的环境必须是完全真实的～他的行为不能受任何控制。这种研究方法的优点是可以获取被试对某种刺激的真实反应。在有些情况下它具有实验研究所无法替代的功能。 实际上许多心理学理论都是建立在自然观测所得来的信息之上的。比如儿童语言发展的普遍特征就是通过对儿童大量的自然观察之后发现的。许多心理学家甚至把自己的孩子作为观察对象～每天对他们的语言进行观察记录,笔记或者录音,。尽管自然观察也涉及到隐私权等问题～但是～只要无伤大局～观察是可以进行的。如为了建立口语语料库～研究者通常在研究对象不知情的情况下进行录音～如在公园录情人的悄悄话～商店录消费者与店家之间的讨价还价～火车上录陌生人之间的客套话…～但是研究人员必须将录音和被录音者的基本情况分离开～不能泄露有关于被试的任何个人资料,如果研究者了解的话,。诸如此类的自然观察研究～工作量巨大～涉及的观察对象和情景多种多样～在实验条件下很难进行操作。另外～人类具有理性～每个人在正常情况下都是按照理性的法则来表现自己的。但是～人也有非理性的一面。他可以在面对公众的时候～表现得慷慨激昂～无私无谓～而在另一些场合可能表现的非常怯弱和自私～人的这种两面 性在实验条件下是无法被观察到的～只有通过对人的不同场合的表现进行自然的观察我们才能发现人的这种特性。 2, 调查:调查通常是为了了解某一群体对特定事件的态度、经验、认知方式和行为方式等的一 种研究手段。调查的方法主要有两种:访谈,interview,和问卷,questionnaire,。 访谈是面对面的或者通过电话所进行的调查～前者通常涉及比较复杂而细致的问题～后者则往往涉及比较简单的问题。比如人口普查常用访谈～电视节目或频道收视率调查常用电话访谈。要调查特定的人群体对某一问题的看法或态度～也可以进行所谓的―深度访谈‖,depth interview,。这种访谈要求访问者和被访问者之间建立信任关系～以使得被访者内心的真实感受说出来。无论多么深的深度访谈～研究者都要对访谈收集的信息进行分析整理并以统计学方法将信息表述出来～因此～一条有价值的访谈信息必须来自与具有代表性的并有一定大的样本,不同调查对最低样本的要求是不一样的～可用信度检验方法来检验来自一定样的测量是否可靠,。 问卷调查无论在社会心理学还是在认知心理学方面运用都非常广泛。它以书面形式将所要搜集的信息列成明确的～应回答的问题。问题的答案可以是开放性的～也可以是封闭性的。前者可以按被调查者的意愿自由表述～后者是在由调查者提供的有限的答案中进行选择～答案大体有三类:1,是非选择～即―是‖与―否‖的选择, 2,对立选择～即从内容相对立的两个答案中选择一个～如―喜欢‖和―讨厌‖,3,等级选择～这种方法中又分为规定等级和等级评定～前者有―非常喜欢‖～―喜欢‖～―不喜欢‖～―非常不喜欢‖和―无所谓‖构成的某一范畴的等级,后者有如用五级或七级量表对某一命题进行评定～如让被试在1-7的数值中选择一个来表示他所认为的―背单词在外语学习中的重要性‖,必须规定数值大小与重要性程度的关系～一般用数值越大程度越高的标记方法,。 问卷调查不受时间和地点的制约～可以大规模地而又经济地获取有用的数据～但是～它的效度较难保证～首先被试在填写问卷时态度的认真程度很难保证～因而有可能无法揭示研究对象的真实情况。其次是在涉及个人隐私,尽管可能是不记名的问卷,和名誉的问题是往往会有意或无意地作出虚假的回答～这也会影响调查结果的信度。解决问题的办法是～做好被试的工作～并且事先告之会给予相应的报酬,这一点十分重要, 因为不是所有被试都愿意义务为你的研究服务,。另外～在设计问卷时～如涉及隐私或名誉问题时～必须有测慌题～如只有当几个问题的答案同时为肯定时～某一个调查项目的答案才能被判为真实而被接受。由于一般的被试没有受过专业训练不易觉察这种―陷阱‖。 3, 相关分析:相关分析是用来考察两种测量是否具有相互关系的一种方法。许多情况下一个事 物的变化和另一事物的变化是相互关联的～如身高和体重～智力与数学成绩～外语学习的开 始年龄与外语的听、说能力等等。 如果一种测量和另一种测量是以一种相同的趋势变化～如智力越好数学成绩越好～智力越低数学成绩越差～说明智力和数学成绩之间存在一种正相关关系～叫正相关。如果测量呈现的是一种相反的变化趋势～则说明它们是反相关关系～叫负相关。相关的程度用相关系数来表示～最大相关值为+1或-1～绝对值越大相关性越高。 相关性不表明两个事物之具有因果关系～要证明因果关系还需要用其它手段。智力好和数学成绩好之间可能是一种因果关系～即智力为因～成绩为果。但是这种推断可能是不可靠的～因为～有些智力量表～如瑞文推理量表～需要用到数学的推论～数学成绩好的被试在测量中可能因此显得得心应手～因而得了高分。 相关研究研究的最大优势是它的对档案资料的运用。有些人类行为及其产生的因素是无法通过现场实验来控制和观察的。比如有人研究妇女生男孩和生女孩的数量与其平均寿命之间的关系～就可以以档案资料为依据～将同一时期某个地区的已故妇女的死亡年龄和她们生育的孩子性别和数量进行统计分析。而不是以现有的育龄妇女为研究对象。 相关分析的操作比较简便～只要能获得需要进行相关分析的两列数据～便可通过SPSS等统计软件进行分析～SPSS系统可以同时对多列变量数据进行相关分析。例如～要考察中学生各科成绩之间的相关关系～只要把同一班级或同一年级学生的各科考试成绩按相同的顺序排列好～用输入统计软件便可进行分析。 4, 个案研究:个案研究指对某一个别对象进行深入考察的研究方法。一般而言～科学研究要通 过大量的观察和实验才能得出一个具有理论价值的结论。但是～对于个别对象的小范围研究～ 同样具有科学价值～尤其当研究对象呈现出与普遍理论相违背或者既往的研究不曾发现的事 实时～对个别案例的研究就显得优为重要。 虽然科学研究的目的是发现事物发展的普遍规律～然而～这种普遍性在科学发展的特定阶段又往往寓于特殊性之中。比如记忆理论所揭示的普遍规律是:每个人对信息的的记忆都有一定的容量～对于无意义数字或符号的记忆一般都显得比较困难。但是～在现实生活中有的人能记住圆周率小数点后的1000个数字～有的能人能对曲调的旋律一听不忘～有的人能记住过去几十年的日历上哪一天是星期几,这种现象并不具有普遍性～但是对这些个案的研究能够进一步揭示记忆的内在本质。 有时后～我们面对的研究对象是我们在正常情况无法找到的。比如由于颅脑外伤导致的语言、情绪、记忆和性格等方面的特殊变化～能够研究者通过特殊状态下的特殊表现观察到在常态下无法观察到的现象。而这些现象又能为我们进一步了解大脑与行为之间的关系。 另外～在大规模的定量研究之前～个案研究能为我们提供经验依据～因为～通过对某个特殊对象的研究我们能个推测～同类对象可能具有相同的本质。正如一个心理学家可能把自的孩子作为研究对象～观察他的语言习得过程～尽管这种观察无法作出建立科学理论的依据～但是～它却能够为大样本的研究指明一个基本的研究范围～实验的注意力能集中到问题焦点上。 站在不同的角度可能对科学研究方法作出不同的分类～但是～科学研究过程的一切手段都是为了有效地获取关于研究对象的信息并且通过着些信息建立科学的理论。 反应时记录法 语言认知的内部过程无法被直接观察到～我们只能通过对一些外在行为的观察来推断内在的内在过程的运动变化～ 其中对语言刺激的反应时间是作为考察心理加工过程的一个重要指标。反应时间又称反应时～指刺激作用于有机体到特定的反应开始所需要的时间～也就是刺激与反应的时间间隔～也叫反应反应潜伏期。反应时是一种反应变量～它是心理加工过程的外在指标～一般来说～对认知对象越是熟悉～内部加工过程就越简单～对其作出反应的时间就越快。相反～对一个认知对象越不熟悉～心理运算过程就越复杂～对其作出反应的时间就越长。 反应时的记录方法很多～早期叫常用的是机械计时器～如毫秒表～这种计时器现在多被电子计时器所取代。在语言认知实验中～常用的特别设计的程序～通过电脑计时～这种计时方法简单方便～而且非常精确。不同的实验范式～与电脑相连的反应装臵也不一样。 命名,naming,: 这一种常用来测量语言认知反应的一种实验方法。目前较多使用的根据特殊目的设计的声控程序～基本设备是话筒和带声卡的电脑。被试对着话筒～大声说出电脑屏幕上呈现的词语。计时从词语呈现开始～到说出词语结束,话筒的声波信息～通过声卡使计算机按程序结束计时任务,。通过命名可以测定识别一个词语所需的时间以及影响词语识别速度的各种因素。因此～命名实验常用来研究语义通达效率～语义的启动效应和干扰效应～字词的形态结构和声学特征对语义通达的影响等。命名实验揭示～词语的不同形态结构～频 率～有无启动条件等因素都会影响语言的内在加工过程～如～英语的单词的平均命名速度为400毫秒～汉字的平均命名速度为600毫秒,Chen & Juola, 1982,,说明拼音文字和表义文字加工速度的差异,高频词的命名速度比低频词的命名速度快,词汇的意象性和抽象程度等因素都会影响命名速度。但是～在使用命名实验方法时～我们也要注意声学和形态表征与语义表征之间可能存在的分离现象～即～念出一个词～不一定通达这个词语义～相反～有些我们在视觉上很熟悉的词～不一定在发音方面也同样熟悉。在实验设计时应当考虑这些因素。 Stroop 效应实验,Stroop effect experiment,:这是一种经典性的反应时实验～由心理学家Stroop (1935)首创。最早的实验是要求被试对书写颜色词的不同颜色进行命名～ 如～―红‖字用蓝色书写～被试在看到这个词之后要立即说出―蓝‖。实验发现～当颜色词和书写它的颜色一致时命名速度快～不一致时命名速度慢～两者的差异达到显著水平～这就是所谓的―Stroop 效应‖。 ―Stroop 效应‖说明视觉词汇加工过程中语义是自动激活的～即当我们看到颜色词时～尽管不要求对颜色词本身进行加工～但是～知觉无法拒绝这个颜色词的语义通达进程～语义最终激活。当书写颜色与颜色词不一致时～由颜色词激活的语义和书写颜色所激活的语义之间便发生干扰作用～命名的速度就受到影响。―Stroop 效应‖实验已经被扩展到对其它类似的干扰现象的探测～如～在词图的干扰效应～如在呈现一张画有苹果的图画之前～快速呈现―香蕉‖或―苹果‖～在词和图不一致的条件下～命名速度更慢。 词汇判断(lexical decision): 判断在屏幕上呈现的词是真词还是假词～并作按键反应的一种实验方法。一般情况下～计时从词的呈现开始到被试作出按键反应,同时屏幕上的词消失,结束。程序记录的是词的呈现到作出判断并进行反应全部时间。假词多用作填充材料,实验这并不关心被试对假词本身的反应时～真词才是实验者所关心的。如果呈现的全为真词～实验者就无法控制被试的认知反应,。假词是根据不同实验目的设计出来的～如―werd‖这个词符合英语的拼读规则,但词汇中并没有这个词～因此～我们叫它假词。在某些情况下～为考察拼读规则是否在词汇认知过程起作用～实验者还设计一种完全不符合拼读规则的词～如～在英语词串中插进―xret‖～这种叫非词。汉语认知实验中有假字～假词和非字。符合结构规则的无意义字为假字～不符合结构规则的无意义字为非字～随意的字组合为假词。 词汇判断实验也有许多变体～其中同一性判断运用最多。其基本方法是～要求被试判断先前呈现的词和当前呈现的词是否相同。根据不同的实验目的可分～形～音～义以及语法范畴等方面的同一性判断。 词汇判断的范式很多～但它的基本功能是用来探测语义启动～形旁和声旁效应～词频率的频率效应～意象性效应等。在双语认知研究中广为运用。 语义判断,semantic decision,:语义判断大体上可以分为两种类型～一是对词汇的范畴判断～如～对词汇串中的词是否属于某种范畴,一是对某种语句表达是否符合语义表达的惯用方式。两种均可采用按键反应～记录从刺激呈现到作出反应的潜伏期。前者多用视觉呈现～它的基本操作和词汇判断相同～对目标词做是或否的判断,后者多用听觉呈现～因为～视觉呈现语句难以对语句间的各个词汇的频率进行匹配～反应方式一般为:语句听觉呈现,通过耳机,结束～计时开始,或根据需要确定计时起点,～被试判断并作按键反应～计时结束,参阅李荣宝～1999,。范畴判断的测量功能和词汇判断大体相同～但前者可用于语义距离的测量。语句语义的合理性判断主要用于不同条件下的语义整合过程的差异～如跨语言整合～即一个语义完全相同的主从复合语句～在后半句语言相同的情况下～前半句用英语或汉语～两种条件下判断时间如果出现差异～可能说明语义表征系统的分离。 反应时的记录方法很多～但是这些方法的理论依据都是相同的～那就是不同复杂程度的心理加工所需要的时间是不同的。因此～反应时实验不但用于语言认知研究～而且还用于认知研究的其它领域。 实验设计 传统的语言研究属于哲学范畴～因此～它最常用的是哲学的思辩方法。现代语言学研究已经逐渐地走出了单纯的理论思辩的藩篱～越来越多地采用其它学科的研究方法～尤其是实验心理学、信息学、统计学、脑科学和计算机科学。实验方法已经成为语言研究的最重要手段之一。 实验研究的根本目的是为了有意识地、系统地寻求研究对象的内在结构和运动变化规律～因此它不但要有明确的理论目的～而且还应该运用严格的控制机制～因而设计就成了实验研究的关键环节。实验设计从广义来说指实验研究的一般过程～包括提出问题～产生假说～选择变量～分析结果和撰写等步骤。从狭义来说它指实施实验处理的一个计划及与这一计划相联系的统计～即如何获得数据和如何处理数据。 一个实验计划的拟定是和统计假说联系在一起的～一个完整的实验方案必须包含这两个部分。但是决定方案的根本因素是实验的理论假设～它是研究者对实验结果的理论预期。比如～如果词的书面使用频率对语义通达速度产生影响的话～那么在视觉呈现实验刺激时～对于高频词的反应速度就会快于对低频词的反应速度。但是～字的笔画数,如汉语,可能也会影响通达速度～而且对高频词和低频词的影响程度可能是不同的～高频词受到的影响可能更大。这样我们对词语义通达速度就有了一个基本的预期。我们所要做的是使实验有效地对这种预期进行检验。为了实现这个目标～我们必须把理论假设转化为统计假设～通常采用虚无假设,null hypothesis,方法～即假设被试对高频词和低频词的反应时间没有差异～词的笔画数多和少对高频词和低频词的影响也没有差异。统计检验如果能推翻这种虚无假设～那么～我们的理论假设便是正确的～否则就是错误的。 要使统计假设便于检验并且得到真实的结果～我们就必须对实验过程进行严格的控制和规划。要同时考察词的频率和笔画数对语义通达速度的影响～我们首先要控制能影响实验反应的因素,自变量,～即词的频率和笔画数～确定因素的水平～即把词的频率和笔画数分为几个,至少两个,等级～如频率在500以上和200以下,即在一百万字中出现的次数,～而对于每一种频率等级来说～又可分为若干笔画数等级～如6画以下～8画以下。这样整个实验就构成了一个两因素两水平的设计～即2×2的设计。这种设计能通过统计检验显示两个因素的主效应以及两个因素之间的交互作用。 交互作用揭示的是因素的不同水平之间的复杂的变化关系～当同时考察两个因素的对因变量的时～一个因素的影响只表现另一个因素的某一水平上。如果词的笔画数只对高频词,或只对低频词,产生影响～如笔画越多反应时越长～这种交互作用就会通过统计检验显示出来。因此～在实验设计时我们用不同的设计来解决不同复杂程度的问题。一般而言实验中被操纵的自变量越少～实验就越简单。只有一个自变量的实验设计叫单因素设计～两个以上自变量的设计叫多因素设计～简称因素设计,factorial design,。 无论是单因素设计还是多因素设计～适当选取自变量水平是实验控制的关键。自变量水平之间必须有明显的区分性～而且这种区分性必须能从因变量,实验测量,中反映出来。另一个重要方面是选择因变量和控制无关变量～要选择对自变量变化敏感的因变量～但是要对与研究目的无关～却又影响因变量变化的因素进行有效控制。如果我们要考察英语篇章的生词密度对听力成绩的影响～我们不但要选择适当的生词密度的～如5%和10%的密度差异无法从因变量,成绩,中体现出来～可能10%和20%的密度变化幅度能够体现出差异～这可以通过预试来测定。另外～要确定一种有效反映自变量变化的因变量～比如用客观的多项选择就比复述所听篇章内容更能有效地反映听力的成绩。然而即便用客观的选择题～问题的设计也会影响测量的效度～因此～要通过效度预测避免测量的―天花板效应‖,ceiling effect, 即 全部被试的成绩都很高,或―地板效应‖,floor effect, 即全部被试的成绩都很低,。有效的测量成绩应该是呈正态分布的～即中间大两头小的分布。在这个实验中被试对主题的熟悉性是无关变量～可以通过被试内设计或同一的主题等方法来消除。 在对自变量进行选择控制时～我们还应当考虑如何将自变量的水平分配给被试～不同实验要求用不同的分配方法～不同的分配方法对因变量变化有不同的作用。如果让一组被试同时接受因素的所有水平～其分配方法叫组内(被试内)设计(within-subject design),如果让一组被试接受实验中自变量的一个水平或水平组合～另一组被试接受自变量的另一个水平或水平组合～其分配方法叫组间,被试间,设计,between-subject design,,如果一个实验既有被试间自变量～又有被试内自变量～那么～这种分配就叫混合设计,mixed design,。 组内设计将不同的自变量,水平,分配给相同的被试～因而能有效地控制被试的个别差异对实验中因变量的影响。如要考察对单音节和多音节英语单词记忆效率差异～我们按单词的1～2和3音节分为三个自变量水平～每个水平60个单词～共180个单词～然后将所有单词随即排列～让50个被试用1小时时间进行记忆,如记住基本意思和拼写,～然后进行回忆测验,如翻译,。在统计分析时～我们只要将被准确记忆的每个音节水平的单词数量进行比较～检查其各水平间差异的显著性。 如果出现显著差异～这种差异肯定不是由被试的个体差异引起的～因为～所有被试面对的是相同的条件和任务～我们取的数据的每个被试所回忆出来的每个水平词的平均数以及各个水平中每个被准确回忆的被试平均人数。而如果让三组不同的被试分别接受一个水平的单词～在统计分析时～我们就要考虑由于被试的差异,如一组被试的记忆力可能比另一组被试的记忆力更强,可能导致的因变量的变化。 但是～如果我们要考察的是不同的记忆方法对记忆英语单词的效果～用组间设计就更为方便～因为～同一组单词用了方法A在用方法B的话～后者不可避免地要受到前者的影响。比如～要比较朗读和默读的记忆方法在记忆效果方面的差异～被试用了朗读法并且测得了成绩之后～再使用默读法就无法真实地反映记忆效果～因为在前面所进行的朗读记忆会对后面进行的默读记忆产生熟悉性效应。而用组间设计就能有效地解决这一问题。由于～组间设计的主要问题是被试间的个体差异～所以在设计时一定要严格地对被试进行随机化分配～两组被试必须来自相同的样本。 如果将实验进一步扩展～如增加一个因素～考察记忆时间的长短是否也对记忆效果产生影响并将时间分为若干等级～两组被试接受的材料相同～记忆的操作方法也相同～这样实验的设计就成了混合设计～即在记忆方式这个因素上是组间设计～而在时间长度这个因素上组内设计～因为两组被试接受相同的实验操作。一般来说～一种自变量,或自变量水平,如果会影响另一种自变量,或自变量水平,～那么对这些自变量就要采取被试间设计。 实验设计并不是那么刻板和一成不变的～有时～只要对实验材料进行匹配～便可将组间设计转换为组内设计。上述关于记忆方法的实验设计～如果使用两组在频率～抽象性和词的字母数等方面都进行过匹配的单词～在两个不同的时间实施测量～则完全可以采取组内设计方法。不过～这种设计实际上是把被试作为组内设计～而材料作为组间设计。 在实验研究中～除了被试与自变量的分配关系～我们还要考虑其它方面的控制。其中最主要的是对照组的选择和实验者效应的控制。在单因素设计中～我们通常对某个自变量的两个水平进行操纵并且的到两个测量结果～通过对两个测量结果的检验发现水平之间的差异。但是有的时候为了方便起见～实验中只用一个水平的自变量～测量结果只和对照组,控制组,进行对比。如～要测量一种外语教学方法是否有效～就必须有一个可与之相对照的教学方法～如果用于对照的是现行的教学方法～那么～我们只需要用一组被试作为实验组～使之接受新的教学方法的教学～在一定的时间之后对这组被试做相关的测试～同时～也对另一组只接受现行教学法的被试进行测试。在这样的设计中～只有对控制组的选择作严格的控制～才能使实验结果具备准确性。比如实验中选择A班作为实验组～B班作为控制组～除了两个班级 必须处于同一水年级外～还要考虑两个班级原有的智力基础～学习热情～学生的背景等是否能总体匹配。所有有关因素都进行了匹配之后～实验组与控制组的比较才能真实地反映两种教学方法的效果差异。 在实验研究中～主试的态度表情和实验指导语都能影响被试的反应。比如在通过按键反应记录反应时的实验中～指导语中必须说明对什么词作肯定反应或否定反应～怎样按键～不能用模棱两可的语言～并且告之被试他们的反应速度和正确率将被自动记录在程序中。这样得到一定报酬的被试在实验过程中～为了不至于使自己的反应太慢～错误率太高～就会集中注意力～认真地完成实验。这样就能保证数据的可靠性。 实验研究中的变量 实验研究中有三种变量～即自变量(independent variable)、因变量(dependent variable)和无关变量(irrelevant variable)。研究者必须通过操纵自变量和控制无关变量来观察或测量因变量。自变量是主试在实验中要特别操纵以影响被试的反应的因素,factor,。因素指研究者在实验中感兴趣的一个变量～也叫自变量,independent variable,～研究者通过对因素的控制～来观察它对因变量,dependent variable,的影响。～而因变量是主试要观测的变量～它可以随自变量的变化而变化。无关变量是客观存在于实验过程并且可能不同程度地影响因变量的因素～对这种因素要加以控制～使之对因变量的影响降低到最小的程度。这三种变量具有如下特征: 自变量:实验中有许多因素会影响被试的行为反应～但是～在一个实验中我们只能根据实验目的对有限的自变量进行操纵。自变量大体可分为如下两种类型: 1,实验刺激:在实验中按一定的方式向被试呈现的刺激～以引起被试的特定反应。因 此～改变刺激材料或呈现方式就有可能引起被试的不同反应。对实验刺激进行操纵 是实验研究中常用的自变量控制。如在用反应时测量语义通达速度时～通过改变词 的频率～抽象程度～笔画数～字体大小等因素～可以观测到反应时的差异。在语言 认知实验中～常用的呈现通道有两种～即视觉和听觉～但是呈现的方式却是多种多 样的～如在速度上有快慢之分～在刺激上有强弱之分。如果我们想考察语音对外语 单词记忆的作用～那么～可以通过控制自变量语音这一因素来实现我们的实验目的: 给一组被试呈现英语生词,通过电脑屏幕,～并且用汉语告之其意义～要求被试记 住词的拼写～给另一组被试以相同的方式呈现相同的生词时～教他们大声念这些单 词。两组被试以相同长度的时间进行记忆～并以相同的方式进行测试,如在汉语词 后写出相应的英语单词,。通过比较两组被试的成绩～我们可以了解语音在词汇记 忆中的作用～即如果大声朗读组的成绩明显地好于默记组～那么我们便可推断～语 音发生了作用。在这个实验中～我们控制的自变量就是实验刺激。还有另一种旨在 改变被试的暂时状态的刺激变量～实验者对被试的暂时状态本身并不感兴趣～而对 由暂时状态导致的因变量的变化感兴趣。如给随机选择的被试服用某种兴奋剂并观 察不同的剂量对被试行为反应的影响。这里要直接操纵的是药物的剂量～而不是被 试的兴奋程度。有些研究者把种类自变量叫做被试的暂时特征性自变量,如舒华～ 1994:29,朱莹～1993:3,。不过～这种暂时性状实际上是通过操纵刺激变量而导 致的。让被试专注于某种刺激的时间和方式～可以引起被试不同的疲劳程度～虽然 实验者只关心疲劳程度与行为反应的关系～但是他所操纵是刺激这个变量。 2,被试特征:在实验中我们也经常通过以不同的被试特征作为自变量并通过对它的控 制来达到实验的目的。在实验中可作为自变量的被试特征因素很多～包括年龄～性 别～智力～身高～体重～家庭背景～教育水平等等。有些实验是以这些特征因素为 自变量的。如在词汇通达速度的测量时～不同年龄～不同教育程度的被试之间可能 存在差异～如果实验者对这种差异感兴趣～他就必须把这些因素作为自变量加以控 制～他可以将被试按年龄组和教育水平分组～如分为少年青年组和老年组～在每个 年龄组又按教育水平分为受过高等教育和受过高中教育的被试组～构成一个2×2的 被试间设计。对被试特征因素进行分类必须遵循一定的标准～如性别只有男女～智 力则可以按实验者的要求分为若干等级～不过首先要对被试的智力进行标准化的测 试。不过有些被试特征是比较难以界定的～因而就不可以在实验中被作为自变量来 控制～如我们很难把被试分为心理健康和不健康两个水平～而只能按人格特征的某 些特定的指标来控制～比如通过明尼苏达多相人格量表～可以测出一个人是否内向～ 是否敏感～是否多疑等～只有按这些指标来分类才是客观的。 在实验中被操纵的自变量的每个特定值叫水平,level,～一般实验中被操纵的变量至少要有两个水平。比如要考察词汇的语义通达与词的频率的关系～我们就要把词的频率作为自变量～这个自变量至少要有两个等级～如高频和低频～而且在定级时必须遵循一定的标准。 因变量:因变量是实验中研究者要观测的量～即被试的反应变量。它是随自变量的变化而改变的被试的行为变量。它的基本特点是能够通过一定的方式直接或者间接地被观察到～而且能够以数据的方式表示出来。如在语义启动实验中～我们以反应时间来表示启动量～通过控制启动词与目标词的语义关系等因素～来观察启动量的变化。因此～在这个实验中～反应时间是因变量～启动词与目标词的语义语义关系是自变量,必须有两个以上的水平～如有紧密的语义联系和没有语义联系,。 实验研究中因变量的选择要根据实验的目的和手段而定。有些实验的因变量很难把握～如要 研究两种不同的教学方法～对学生创造性的不同影响～学生的创造性就是本实验的因变量～ 但是～要以什么作为创造性的指标呢,实验之前首先考虑因变量的各种指标及其观测的方 法。 无关变量:所有对因变量产生影响～但是又不在研究者的观测范围之内的因素～都称作无关变量。无关变量的来源非常广泛～而且与因变量的关系也非常复杂。有时在实验中要通过特殊的设计才能控制它对因变量的影响。比如要考察标题是否对阅读理解的成绩产生影响～看起来实验设计很简单～只要让两组被试分别阅读有标题和无标题材料,用平衡匹配的方法分配实验材料～即每组阅读一半有标题材料和一半无标题材料,～然后测量阅读成绩。但是～在实际的实验中～阅读的材料的难度～所规定的阅读时间等因素～都有可能影响阅读成绩～尽管我们对这些因素不感兴趣～但是它们都会以一定的方式影响实验结果～必须加以控制。如通过预试确定一种文章难度和测试的时间长度～在选择一个能使测试成绩在带标题的情况下呈正态分布难度和时间长度。我们也可以在正式测试时～分为几个难度级别和时间级别～这些方法都能有效地控制无关变量。这样的控制可能会使我们发现～只有在快速阅读难度较大的材料时～标题才具有影响效应。控制无关变量的方法很多～要根据具体的实验来选择。 因素设计 因素设计通常指实验中包含两个或两个以上因素的实验设计。这种设计将了研究者对研究问题多种可能的解释包含于一个实验之中～它的特点是将实验中每个变量的各个水 平都结合起来考虑。因此它需要特殊的设计方法。在一个2×2的因素设计中～我们要考察因素和因素水平之间四种可能的关系～我们把这种关系叫做处理, treatment,。各种处理的总数是各因素所包含的水平数的乘积～一个2×2的因素设计就有4种处理,如表---,。 表 2×2的因素设计 A因素 A1 A2 B1 A1B1 A2B1 B因素 B2 A1B1 A2B2 如果要考察外语阅读过程中标题对阅读成绩的影响～我们可能要将有无标题这一因素臵于文章的主题熟悉性和阅读的时间限制这两个因素中去研究～因为～这两个因素最有可能和标题的因素的作用同时存在。通过一个2×2×2的设计～我们就有可能比较好地将各种因素的作用分离开来。如将标题作为因素A～分为两个水平～即有标题,A1,和无标题,A2,～将主题熟悉性作为因素B～分为两个水平～熟悉,B1,和不熟悉,B2,～将阅读时间限度作为因素C～也分为两个水平～正常速度阅读,C1,快速阅读,C2,。这样整个实验就包含了8种处理。即A1B1C1, A1B1C2, A1B2C1, A1B2C2, A2B1C1, A2B1C2, A2B2C1, A2B2C2. 见表2: 表2 2×2×2因素设计 A1 A2 B1 B2 B1 B2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 A1B1C1 A1B1C2 A1B2C1 A1B2CA2B1CA2B1CA2B2CA2B2C 2 1 2 1 2 在这样的多因素设计中～各个因素水平之间的关系非常复杂。在准备实验材料时要考虑到每一种处理。如上述实验至少要准备4篇文章～2篇主题熟悉的～2两篇主题不熟悉的～每一种主题熟悉性1篇用于正常速度阅读～1篇用于快速阅读。这些材料一式两份～一份是带标题的～另一份不带标题。将带标题和不带标题两类材料分配给两组来自相同样本的被试～就构成了上述2×2×2组间设计,材料组内设计,。在实际的实验中～可能同一种材料要有 若干篇～但其分配方法是相同的。对于因素设计实验～我们最关心的是主效应,main effect,和交互作用,interaction,。实验中由一个因素的不同水平引起的作用,变异,叫做因素的主效应～如上述2×2×2实验的设计中～有三个因素～每个因素有两个水平。如果实验中发现有标题和无标题篇章阅读成绩之间有显著差异～我们就说标题这一因素的主效应显著。如果主题熟悉性和阅读时限的主效应也显著～说明在阅读中主题是否熟悉～速度是否限制对阅读成绩是有明显作用的。反之则说明作用不存在。主效应实际上是在忽略其它因素的情况下～独立地考察某个因素的水平之间变异。在这一意义上说～一个2×2×2的因素设计～就是把三个单因素实验整合在一起。但是～整合的目的是为了观测因素之间的相互作用～即交 交互作用示意图 互作用。这是单因素实验无法实现的功能。交互作用指的是一个因素的水平在另一个因素的不同水平上变化趋势不一致。如果上述实验揭示的因素间的关系如图, ,所示～那么我们就可以这样解释因素间水平的关系:图,a,指的是A因素和B因素,A×B,之间没有交互作用～即一个因素的水平在另一个因素的不同水平上变化是一致的～说明两个因素的作用是独立的～也就是说～在有标题的情况下～被试对主题熟悉的篇章阅读成绩比主题不熟悉的阅读成绩更好～在无标题的情况下也是一样的～虽然有无标题也影响阅读成绩～但是在主题熟悉性的两个水平上影响的程度是一致的。图,b,指的是A因素和C因素,A×C ,之间存在交互作用～即在正常的阅读速度的条件下～有无标题并不影响阅读成绩～但是在快速阅读条件下有无标题对阅读的影响是显著的。 实验的主效应和交互作用都可以直接通过方差分析来检验。当发现因素的交互为了明确一个因素的水平在另一个因素的某个水平上的变异～我们还要进行简单效应分析。如上述A×C的交互作用～我们可以通过图形看出因素水平间作用的实质。但是当因素水平较多时～在方差分析中出现两次交互作用时～就要做简单效应检验。 语言的认知神经学实验研究 正电子放射层描术,positron emission tomography, PET,,功能磁共振成像(functional magnetic resonance image, fMRI)和事件相关电位(event-related potentials, ERP) 技术是在近十几年来在认知神经科学领域发展起来的重要研究手段～现在已广泛应用于语言认知过程的研究～这些技术的最大优势是可以在无损伤条件下观察正常人脑在进行语言活动中各脑区生理 功能的变化～从而为揭示人脑各脑区的语言功能定位和语言加工过程的时间进程以及任务与时间进程的相关性。它们为解开人脑的秘密提供新的知识。 当大脑处于活动状态时～神经元和神经胶质细胞的生物化学过程将会快速增强～特别是突触的离子流处于高速活动状态。这时突触部位会有大量的能量消耗～需要额外补充葡萄糖和氧～这样会导致大脑局部脑血流,rCBF～regional cerebral blood flow,的增加。来自动物研究的结果发现～区域血流量和葡萄糖的新陈代谢率与该区域神经活动情况有内在关系,Sokoloff～1981,。这样通过考察脑血流变化情况及大脑局部代谢率,rCMR～regional cerebral metabolic rate,的变化,PET技术,或脑血流中血氧含量的变化,fMRI技术,～就可以得到大脑各区域神经活动的情况。这是PET和fMRI技术的基本原理。不过～PET是通过注射示踪剂,同位素,来考察脑血流变化和局部代谢的～而fMRI是通过观测血氧变化反映脑血流变化～从而考察局部代谢的。 fMRI的主要技术——血氧水平依赖性对比成像技术～即BOLD,blood oxygenation level dependent,技术的依据是血液中血氧含量不同会导致血液的磁性特点发生变化。血液中不同成分的磁性特点是不一样的～如脱氧血红蛋白,deoxygenated hemoglobin,磁化率高, 具顺磁性(paramagnetic)～而氧合血红蛋白,oxygenated hemoglobin,磁化率低～具抗磁性(diamagnetic)。在激活的脑区中～血流显著增加,约增加 50,,～而氧耗仅轻度增加,约增加 5,,～血液中氧合血红蛋白比例增加～引起局部磁场梯度发生变化～利用磁共振技术探测到的信号强度也会随着改变～即称为血氧水平依赖性对比成像。BOLD反映的是氧合血红蛋白和脱氧血红蛋白的磁化率有差异、神经活动引起的血流有变化、血氧浓度及代谢率有变化的综合机制～通常BOLD对比度比血流对比度更灵敏。 相对于PET或其他脑成像技术～fMRI技术有很多优势。首先～fMRI技术的数据采集比较迅速。例如～用回波平面成像技术,echo-planar imaging～EPI,可以达到在40毫秒内 15完成一次平面扫描。而用PET,O,进行的研究中～图像取样的时间至少是40秒。成像速度快的优势是能够更精确地追踪脑活动的快速变化～并且可以减少像被试头部移动等现象导致的成像不够精确等问题。另外是能够在每一个扫描时段里进行更多的扫描～采集更多的样本～从而提高统计检验力和对信号的敏感程度～或者可以在同一扫描时段里的进行不同的任务～执行较为复杂的研究设计。另外～fMRI能够获得高空间分辨率～从理论上可以达到100μm～高空间分辨率可以增加信号的精确性。FMRI还 可以做一些其它功能成像技术不能做的研究～例如～PET因使用静脉放射性示踪剂～在对儿童的研究中会受到限制。但是fMRI也有自身的不足。例如～fMRI的实验通常只是对感兴趣的大脑特定区域取几层,slice,～由于fMRI 是逐层取样的～取样层数的增多会导致取样时间的增加。但是PET 技术可以在15cm的区域内同时对整个大脑进行3维平行取样。另外～当前主要使用的BOLD fMRI的方法并不提供直接的生理学参数～只是检测激活状态和基线状态,baseline,之间的信号变化。而PET可以测量大脑局部绝对血流量的变化～因而具有定量分析,quantitative analysis,的优势。此外～PET还可以对其他一些生理指标进行测量～如神经受体和递质系统、脑血栓渗透性等。 总的说来～fMRI超过PET的优势主要是不存在放射性的问题～从同一渠道既获得结构像、又获得功能像～更好的时间分辨率和进行纵向追踪研究。不过fMRI同样也面临着很多问题～有待于进一步的完善。 尽管fMRI和PET两种技术所基于的原理和方法不同～但两者的研究发现有较好的一致性。例如McCarthy等,1993,在单词生成任务中用fMRI所得的结果与Perterson等人用PET所做的相同任务的脑区激活结果是一致的。Eden 等,1995,专门对PET 和fMRI之间的一致性进行了检验～采用相同的的被试勾手动作～数据处理方法也尽量匹配～在实验设计中也充分考虑了两种技术各自的优缺点。结果表明在与任务相关的脑区定位上两种技术得到的结 果是一致的。与fMRI相比～PET检测到由信号导致的激活脑区要更大一些～这表现了PET的空间分辨率稍低的特点。 随着认知心理学与认知神经科学研究的不断深入～对语言认知脑内加工过程探索越来越细致。在观察心理活动的时间过程与其脑内结构定位时～需要足够的精确度。与PET和fMRI研究相比较～ERP可连续、精确地测量大脑对刺激与反应之间的加工过程。而前者只对心理活动在脑内的定位具有相当的精度～因其反映脑内血流的变化～存在延迟时间过长,目前实际只能达到1-2秒左右的精度,的缺陷～而ERP记录反映的是脑内电位活动～可以非常容易地达到毫秒级的时间分辨率。并且～随着多导ERP设备的迅速发展～它的空间精度也大大提高。因此ERP在认知心理学研究中有着不可替代的作用。在过去的15年里～ERP方法已广泛而且成功地用于研究言语加工的各个方面。特别是因为其时间分辨率很高～已成为研究心理活动时间进程的强有力的工具 (Miller 和 Hackley, 1992)～例如～Kutas 等人,1980～1984,发现～当句末词与句子主体的语境相违背时～在400毫秒左右就会出现一个比正常语境条件更大偏移的负波～叫N400。这一成分作为语义加工的一个重要指标～被广泛地用于语义加工进程的研究。另外～研究者还发现～与句子结构有关的正向偏移电位,syntactic positive shift—SPS,也叫P600和与预期的语言形态结构正电位,P300,等,Osterhout & Holcomb, 1992, Coulson et al, 1998,。这些ERP成分对揭示语言加工过程的神经活动机制具有相当重要的意义。 ERP技术的基本原理大体是这样的:当个体接受一个刺激时～脑内会出现一个与这个刺激相关的电位～这种电位可以在脑的外部测到。由于ERP是由刺激所诱发的电位～所以～也被称为诱发电位。实验时被时头戴电极帽,一般在100导以上～电极按规定系统排列并与头皮接触,～实验刺激用视觉或听觉呈现。每个同类实验刺激所诱发的电位经过矫正和过滤之后叠加得到一个平均波～把所有被试的平均波叠加起来得到一个总平均波。不同实验条件的总平均波之间的比较能提供直观的与实验刺激相关的信息。 实验数据及其计算 实验研究的结果一般都要以数据的形式表达出来～因此～在实验中如何获取数据并对它进行检验分析是实验的重要步骤之一。虽然～不同的实验设计有不同的数据收集方法并且来自不同类型实验的数据在结构上是不相同的～但是数据统计的一般过程是相同。 统计分析的第一步对原始数据进行分组整理～即把实验中采集的数据按不同的类别整理成组。比如～在一项对200人的问卷调查中～我们调查了7个项目～每个项目有四个选项～调查之后的第一项工作就是要把每个调查项目中4个选项的人数统计出来～以便于进一步的分析和检验。对于实验研究来说～不同的设计～对原始数据的整理方法是不同的。但是～任何实验的原始数据整理都是为了便于实现最终的统计分析目的。 因为～大部分心理学实验研究的统计假设都是虚无假设,null hypothesis,～所以～实验结果必须进行统计检验～即证明虚无假设是否能够被推翻。例如～在考察词的频率是否影响词识别的速度是反应时实验中～我们所操纵的自变量是词的书面出现频率～如把词的频率分为高频和低频两个水平～那么～我们的统计假设是:被试在识别高频词和低频词时的反应时是没有差异的。然而～我们的实验预期是这两种条件下的识别速度是有差异的～如果统计检验能够推翻虚无假设～说明我们的预期是正确的～因而我们也就能作出相应的实验结论。但是～如果统计检验不能推翻虚无假设～我们便不能作出任何结论。我们不能因为没有推翻虚无假设就作出～对高频词和低频词的识别速度是没有差异的结论～因为没有推翻虚无假设可能是由于实验控制不科学或其它因素所导致的。从这个意义上说～实验设计的核心任务就 是制定一套推翻虚无假设的方案～而不是证明虚无假设。因此～设计中必须使因变量最终成为可供检验的数据。 检验实验结果是否推翻虚无假设的最常用方法是方差分析(analysis of variance 或ANOVA)～ 它是由英国统计学家Sir Ronald Fisher 发展的一种统计方法,F检验就是以他的名字命名的,。方差分析可以检验两组或多组平均数之间的差异～还可以解释因素各个水平之间的交互作用。方差分析分析的方差～即一组数据离散程度的测量～因而它能考察实验处理的中的各种不同来源的变异,variation,～如被试个体差异引起的变异～实验误差引起的变异以及实验处理本身引起的变异。我们知道～在一般情况下～一组数据中的任意一个数据与若干组数据的总平均数的离差等于这个数据与本组平均数的离差加上本组平均数与总平均数的离差。方差分析正是运用数据的这种关系～考察来自两个方向的变异～一个方向是各组数据和围绕总平均数的变化～另一个方向是各组中每个数据围绕本组平均数的变化。就实验数据而言～前一种变化反映了实验处理本身所带来的变异～叫组间变异,between-group variation,～后者则反映个体差异和实验误差所带来的变异～ 叫组内变异,within-group variation,。方差分析就是计算组间变异与组内变异的比率。只有当组间变异明显大于组内变异时～才说明实验处理是有效的。如果两者相差不明显～说明实验处理效应不存在～实验中的效应是由被试的个体差异和实验的随机误差所导致的。 在方差分析中有两个基本概念:平方和,sum of square或SS,和均方,mean square 或 SSMS,。两者的关系是:MS=～其中df,degree of freedom,为自由度～表示自由变动的df 样本观测值的数目。这个公式说明～均方是每个自由度的平均变异～这是方差的基本定义。假设我们进行这样一个实验:为了考察三种不同的记忆方法对英语单词记忆效果～我们设计一个单因素三水平的实验～令A1～A2和A3分别代表一种记忆方法～三组来自相同样本的被试分别接受一种方法～经过相应的实验操作之后～他们对英语单词进行回忆、成绩如下表所示: 表一:单因素被试内设计方差分析 ,k=3, A1 A2 A3 10 15 24 14 20 23 ,n=5, 12 18 20 9 16 26 11 14 30 小组平均数 16(6 总平均数:17.5 11.2 24.6 表中的每个数据为一个被试的观测值～方差分析不但要检验它和小组平均数以及总平均数的离差程度～而且还要检验各组平均数和总平均数之间的离差程度。因而计算就涉及到总平方和,SS,组间平方和,SS,和组内平方和,SS,: tbw22 2SS =[(10 –17.5) +(14-17.5)+…… +(11-17.5)]……A1 t 22 2 +[(15 –17.5) +(20-17.5)+ ……+(14-17.5)]……A2 22 2 +[(24 –17.5) +(23-17.5)+ ……+(30-17.5)]……A3 =547.75 22 2SS=5[(11.2-17.5) +(16.6-17.5)+(24.6-17.5)]=454.55 b22 2SS=[(10 -11.2) +(14-11.2)+ …… +(11-12)]……A1 w22 2 +[(15 –16.6) +(20-16.6)+ ……+(14-16.6)]……A2 22 2 +[(24 –24.6) +(23-24.6)+ ……+(30-24.6)]……A3 =93.2 上述计算结果说明～总变异可被分解为组间变异和组内变异:SS= SS+ SS= 454.55 tbw+93.2 =547.75。在方差分析中～比较组间变异与组内变异时要用各自的均方来比较～而不能直接各自的平方和～因为平方和的大小受到参与求和项数的影响～即n和k。消除这种影响的办法是将平方和除以各自的自由度: SS547.75b 组间均方 MS===273.88～组间自由度df=k-1～。 bbdf2b SS93.2w 组内均方 MS==7.77～组内自由度df=k,n-1,。 wwdf12w 通过比较可以看出～组间均方大于组内均方,273.88>7.77,但是两者的差异是否达到了 MS273.88b==35.25～查F值表,单侧检验,: 显著水平～要的用F检验来确定:F=MS7.77w F=3.88～即在分子的自由度为2～分母的自由度为12时～F=3.88 差异就达到p<.05,～,.05212. 显著水平(p<.05的意思是:不能推翻虚无假设的可能性概率小于5%～即推翻虚无假设是非常肯定的) 。 随着统计技术的发展～今天我们已经摆脱了传统方差分析中烦琐的运算和查表等过程～现成的统计软件包使方差分析变得非常简便快捷～其中SPSS,Statistical Package for the Social Science,就是一个全球广为运用的社会科学统计软件。 用SPSS进行方差分析～我们首先必须对原始数据进行编辑～不同类型的方差分析～要求不同的数据输入格式。数据的输入可分为两种～一种是外部数据～一种是内部数据。前者是从实验程序中直接输出的ASCII数据～后者是人工录入到SPSS数据表中的数据。对前者的处理分析一般用SPSS句法命令～而后者则用SPSS的菜单进行操作。这里只介绍不同方差分析的内部数据编辑。 1. 一维方差分析,One-Way ANOVA,的数据编辑:一维方差分析是单因素实验设计的数 据分析。具备方差分析～均值多重比较和相对比较等功能。原始数据的编辑方法主要步 骤是:定义因素变量,自变量,和因变量～因素变量一般用0～1～2～3等有限的离散 数值来表示因素的各个水平～因变量为与因素变量水平相对应的数据。表, , ,中的 数据在SPSS数据表中的格式。 表格1的第一行为变量标签～对应SPSS中的―VAR‖,双击鼠标左键之后可以定义,～ 可任意选用单词或字母来表示～如―MM‖表示 ―memory method‖～―SCORE‖表示测量得 分。第一列中的―1‖―2‖―3‖分别表示第三种不同的记忆方法～第二列是与记忆方法相对应 的记忆成绩。数据编辑好之后～调用Statistics,有的版本为Analysis,?Compare means?One-Way ANOVA菜单～按要完成对话框的指令～便可得到一维方差分析的结 果。输出的主要结果如表,,,所示: 表, ,一维方差分析结果,ANOVA SCORE, Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between 454.533 2 227.267 29.262 .000 Groups Within Groups 93.200 12 7.767 Total 547.733 14 对于单因素实验来说～我们最关心的是组间差异～因此―Between Group‖这一行中的结果 是最重要的～行中Sum of Squares,SS～平方和,=454.53～ df,自由度,=2～Mean Square ,MS～均方,=227.26～F,F值,=29.26 ,和前面计算的35..25有些出入～那是由于 SPSS中使用了矫正模型～对各种误进行了矫正,～Sig,显著性水平,=.000。在实验报 告中～这些数据被写成:SS=454.53, MS=227.67, F(1,2)=29.26, p<.001。 2. 通用线性模型方差分析,General Linear Model,:SPSS 8.0以上的版本～都将多元方 差分析过程,MANOVA,归到通用线性模型系列之中～一般包含GLM-General Factrial… ,通用多元方差分析,、GLM-Multivariate…,多因变量方差分析,和GLM-Repeated measures…,重复测量方差分析,等子程序。尽管不同的版本所包含的子程序名称和这 三种不尽相同～但其功能却大同小异。 1,通用多元方差分析:此程序可进行一般的多元方差分析～可以提供大量统计输出～包 括主效应分析、交互作用、协方差分析、均值比较～相关分析等。此程序和一维方差分 析的主要差别是～前者适用于多因素变量的实验数据分析～而后者只用于单因素变量的 统计检验。如前面所提到的标题～主题熟悉性和阅读速度关系的2×2×2的实验设计～如 果采用混合设计～便可以用通用多元方差分析对因素主效应和因素间交互作用等项目进 行分析。数据编辑如表, ,所示。表中因素变量定义A～B～C分别表示三个自变量～ 每个因素包含两个水平～即A=有无标题～1=有标题～2=无标题,B=主题熟悉性～1=熟 悉～2=不熟悉,C=阅读速度～1=正常阅读速度～2=快速阅读速度。SCORE=因变量～即 各种处理条件下的阅读成绩,平均值,。编辑数据之后～点击Statistics,有的版本为 analysis,?General Linear Model?GLM-General Factorial 菜单～按对话框选项完成分析 过程。输出是主要结果如表, ,所示。 表, ,通用多元方差结果 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Dependent Variable: SCORE Source Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Sig. Squares A 772.571 1 772.571 35.404 .000 B 591.500 1 591.500 27.106 .000 C 1585.786 1 1585.786 72.671 .000 A * B 37.786 1 37.786 1.732 .194 A * C 132.071 1 132.071 6.052 .018 B * C 126.000 1 126.000 5.774 .020 A * B * C 64.286 1 64.286 2.946 .093 表,,, 单因素三水平实验数据的编辑格式 MM SCORE VAR VAR VAR 1 10 1 14 1 12 1 9 1 11 2 15 2 20 2 18 2 16 2 14 3 24 3 23 3 20 3 26 3 30 表,,, 2×2×2混合设计的实验数据编辑格式 A续 B续 C续 A B C SCORE VAR SCORE 续 1 1 1 78 2 1 1 79 1 1 1 80 2 1 1 80 1 1 1 91 2 1 1 83 1 1 1 94 2 1 1 81 1 1 1 95 2 1 1 78 1 1 1 86 2 1 2 67 1 1 1 88 2 1 2 64 1 1 2 78 2 1 2 68 1 1 2 79 2 1 2 67 1 1 2 77 2 1 2 70 1 1 2 85 2 1 2 79 1 1 2 84 2 1 2 80 1 1 2 83 2 2 1 84 1 1 2 79 2 2 1 78 1 2 1 80 2 2 1 75 1 2 1 86 2 2 1 76 1 2 1 83 2 2 1 79 1 2 1 81 2 2 1 80 1 2 1 78 2 2 1 85 1 2 1 75 2 2 2 60 1 2 1 78 2 2 2 56 1 2 2 65 2 2 2 61 1 2 2 67 2 2 2 59 1 2 2 69 2 2 2 58 1 2 2 74 2 2 2 61 1 2 2 78 2 2 2 70 1 2 2 79 1 2 2 70 2 1 1 78 2 1 1 76 表, ,中可以看出～因素A的主效应显著～F,1～1,=35.40～p<.001, 因素B的主效因显著～F,1～1,=27.10～p<.001～因素C的主效应也显著～F(1, 1)=72.67, p<.001。因素A和之间以及因素B和C之间都有显著的交互作用～分别为F,1～ 1,=6.05～ p<.05～和F,1～1,=5.77～p<.05。 2) 多因变量方差分析,Multivariate…,:当研究问题涉及两个或两个以上相关的因变量时～往往要考察这些因变量与因素变量之间的关系。例如～某一特殊专业招收学生时～担心男女由于性别的差异～在这个专业的能力方面存在差异～为了证明这种假设～招生单位对考生进行四项与专业能力紧密相关的考试。在分析时我们最关心的是～在所有项目的考试中～是否存在性别差异以及在每个项目上是否存在性别差异。这种分析就要运用多因变量的方差分析。表, ,是这种方差分析的原始数据编辑格式。表中SEX为因素变量～1为男性～2为女性～A～B～C～D是因变量～分别表示四个项目的考试成绩。编辑好数据之后～点击Statistics,有的版本为analysis,?General Linear Model? GLM-Multivariate 菜单～选择对话框中的相应项目便可完成分析过程。输出的两种结果特别重要,该程序能进行许多项目的分析～根据研究目的进行选择,:一是多变量方差分析结果～一是单变量方差分析结果。前者反映的是所有因变量和因素变量的关系～后者反映的是每个因变量和因素变量的关系,见表, ,,。 表, ,多因变量方差分析的数据编辑格式 SEX A B C D 1.00 78.00 80.00 78.00 84.00 1.00 80.00 86.00 76.00 78.00 1.00 91.00 83.00 79.00 75.00 1.00 94.00 81.00 80.00 76.00 1.00 95.00 78.00 83.00 79.00 1.00 86.00 75.00 81.00 80.00 1.00 88.00 78.00 78.00 85.00 2.00 78.00 65.00 67.00 60.00 2.00 79.00 67.00 64.00 56.00 2.00 77.00 69.00 68.00 61.00 2.00 85.00 74.00 67.00 59.00 2.00 84.00 78.00 70.00 58.00 2.00 83.00 79.00 79.00 61.00 2.00 79.00 70.00 80.00 70.00 表, ,多变量方差分析结果 Multivariate Tests Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Pillai's trace .945 38.311 4.000 9.000 .000 Wilks' lambda .055 38.311 4.000 9.000 .000 Hotelling's trace 17.027 38.311 4.000 9.000 .000 Roy's largest root 17.027 38.311 4.000 9.000 .000 表( )单变量方差分析结果 Univariate Tests Dependent Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Variable A 157.786 1 157.786 5.896 .032 B 248.643 1 248.643 11.734 .005 C 257.143 1 257.143 11.563 .005 D 1244.571 1 1244.571 72.802 .000 表, ,说明～用不同的检验方法,第一列的名称均为检验方法,检验的结果都显示～性别因素的效应是显著的,p<.001,。表, ,则说明～在A～B～C～D四个因变量上性别这一因素均有明显效应～即男性和女性的成绩存在显著差异～差异的显著性水平分别为～p<.05, p<.005, p<.005, p<.001。 3,重复测量方差分析,Repeated Measures,:本方差分析程序适用于单因素和多因素被试内设计的重复测量实验。所谓重复测量就是每个被试都接受一个因素的所有水平或所有因素的所有水平。例如在考察词频与词视觉识别速度的关系时～实验者用三组不同词频等级,A1, A2 和A3,的词进行反应时实验～所有被试都接受全部实验刺激～这样三个词频等级便有三组数据,因变量,～这三组数据的编辑格式如表, ,所示。表中A1～A2和A3分别表示因素变量的三个水平～每行为一个被试的测量数据,平均值,。 表, ,单因素三水平重复测量方差分析数据编辑格式 A1 A2 A3 VAR VAR VAR VAR VAR 276 310 356 245 297 348 250 299 348 260 301 350 270 303 348 233 283 290 243 291 335 246 295 345 251 298 337 248 300 356 多因素被试内设计的重复测量的原始数据是按因素各水的结合关系来编辑数据的。如前面提到的2×2×2的设计～如果实验是被试内设计,每个被试都接受8种因素水平的处理,～则可用重复测量方差分析。按因素的水平的结合～实验有8组因变量～它们分别为:A1B1C1～A1B1C2～A1B2C1～A1B2C2～A2B1C1～A2B1C2～A2B2C1～A2B2C2。在数据表中～通常用这种因素水平的结合来命名因变量～这样便于输出结果的识别。具体编辑格式如下表, ,所示。表中每个因变量定义代表一种因素水平的结合。 表, ,2×2×2被试内设计重复测量方差分析的数据编辑格式 A1B1C2 A2B1C2 A2B2C1 A1B1C1 A1B2C1 A1B2C2 A2B1C1 A2B2C2 VAR 78 78 80 65 78 67 84 60 80 79 86 67 76 64 78 56 91 77 83 69 79 68 75 61 94 85 81 74 80 67 76 59 95 84 78 78 83 70 79 58 86 83 75 79 81 79 80 61 88 79 78 70 78 80 85 70 按此格式编辑之后～点击Statistics,有的版本为analysis,?General Linear Model? GLM-Repeated Measures 菜单～选择对话框中的相应项目便可完成分析过程。对于单因素的重复测量来说～它和一维方差分析的不同之处除了数据的编辑格式之外～主要体现为测量方式不同～所要检验的项目也有所不同～重复测量不但具有一维方差分析的功能～而且还具有参数估计等大量的其它功能。但是～我们关心的主要是因素的效应～以及因素各水平的两两比较的差异。多因素重复测量方差分析中～我们虽然也关心因素各水平的两两比较～但是～我们更关心个因素的主效应和因素间的交互作用。这些效应都体现在结果输出表的―被试内效应检验‖,Tests of Within-Subjects Effects,。如上述2×2×2被试内设计的重复测量结果包括因素A～B和C的主效应～因素A和B～A和C～B和C以及因素A、B和C之间的交互作用～具体效应如表, ,所示。从表中可以看出～ A～ B～ C主效应显著～A ×B ～A ×C以及 B × C都存在显著的交互作用。 表, ,被试内效应检验结果,Tests of Within-Subjects Effects, Source Type III df Mean F Sig. Sum of Square Squares A 772.571 1 772.571 18.603 .005 B 591.500 1 591.500 38.264 .001 C 1585.786 1 1585.786 77.694 .000 A * B 37.786 1 37.786 6.304 .046 A * C 132.071 1 132.071 8.197 .029 B * C 126.000 1 126.000 6.448 .044 A * B * C 64.286 1 64.286 3.589 .107 方差分析是对实验是否能够推翻虚无假设的最常用检验手段～不过它并不是唯一的手段。在比较两组平均数是否存在差异时～t-检验,t-Test,也经常被采用。但是～t-检验的功能比较单一～它只比较两组平均数之间是否存在差异～而方差分析能够同时检验两组或多组平均数之间的差异。更重要的是～后者不只是检验差异是否存在～而是检验变异是否存在并且揭示各种变异之间的复杂关系。 常用的t-检验方法有两种:独立样本t-检验,Independent Sample t-Test,和配对样本t-检验,Paired-Sample t-Test,。前者用于检验来自两组彼此相互独立的样本数据～其原始数据的编辑方法和一维方差分析的原始数据的编辑格式相同。后者用于检验来自彼此相关两组样本数据。t-检验的主要观测值是t值～它使用的是双尾检验,Two-tailed Test,。t -检验结果的表述格式和方差分析基本相同～不同的是前者用t值～后者用F值。 fMRI研究 BOLD-fMRI的原理人体内的脱氧血红蛋白是一种顺磁性物质,可以作为一种内源性的顺磁性对比剂加以利用。顺磁性脱氧血红蛋白可引起磁化敏感效应,通过血氧饱和度的变化而实现成像,它反映了血流、血容量和血红蛋白氧合作用三者之间的相互作用关系。当脑功能区受到刺激,局部活动增强时,邻近血管床的血流量和血容量增加,并高于局部氧代谢所需要的量,使得脑功能活动区的局部氧合血红蛋白含量高于非活动区,即脑功能活动区的脱氧血红蛋白含量低于非活动区,脱氧血红蛋白作为顺磁性物质缩短T2的作用亦减少,使功能区MR信号相对增加～使用敏感的EPI脉冲序列或GRE序列可以充分地显示BOLD效应出现的信号变化。当然,由于功能信号比较弱,就需要在功能活跃时和功能静止时反复进行扫描,然后将功能活跃时扫描的图像和功能静止时扫描的图像各自叠加,并需通过减影及计算二者之间的信号差异,以得到功能活跃造成的信号变化,即功能信号。正常脑功能的fMRI研究是脑科学研究最具有挑战性的研究课题之一～是对人脑工作机制～即人脑高级功能的研究。这些功能主要包括视觉、听觉、认知和运动功能等。目前的fMRI脑功能研究正在从单一的功能研究转向多功能协同研究;由常规的感觉、运动、视觉、听觉的研究向语言、认知、情感、记忆等方面扩展和深入。 运动和感觉皮质的fMRI研究中手指运动任务模式在我国最早成为fMRI研究的刺激模式,它是fMRI研究中最常用的基本测试方法。由于操作简单,便于控制,利用这种模式,我国学者探讨了简单和复杂手指运动所激活的脑皮质功能区的差异。进而利用新发展起来的全脑fMRI技术,较系统地分析和比较了利手和非利手运动时大脑皮质和小脑运动相关脑区的活动规律。在传统的fMRI实验中,实验设计基于减法模式,称之为组块设 计模式(block-design)。近年,Buckner提出了一种新的设计,即事件相关(event-related)设计模式。与传统的组块设计模式相比较,事件相关设计模式能够更灵活地安排实验刺激及排除无关刺激的干扰,磁共振信号更清楚,并可以与其它科研手段进行更好地整合,从而进一步提高了fMRI研究、探讨问题的深度和广度。利用这种模式探讨简单运动、随意运动及假想动作三种运动模式的脑功能区域的活动机制,已取得了满意结果。对感觉皮质fMRI研究报道较少,但有逐年增加的趋势。视听觉的fMRI研究:fMRI在视觉领域的应用广泛,在视觉生理以及与视觉相关的心理认知研究领域已取得重要进展,并逐步用于眼、耳科的临床研究。这主要与视刺激条件易于控制、视皮质激活信号强度相对较大有关。如在视刺激模式下通过fMRI来直接证实大脑视皮质区域对视觉刺激的知觉反应。用fMRI对良性原发性睑痉挛(BEB)者进行眨眼诱导的皮质反应进行观察,在自然和主动眨眼时,BEB组在视觉皮质的前部、前扣带回、初级运动中枢、丘脑中间区域以及上部小脑的反应比正常对照组多,而且主动眨眼相对自然眨眼状态时,两组的反应都增多,说明了在视觉皮质、边缘系统、辅助运动皮质区、小脑以及控制眼周肌肉运动通路的上级核团有一个亢进的皮质环路。盲人阅读时依靠语言与体表感觉系统的连接,不同于有视力的人触摸盲文。Burton等[10]对9例先天性失明和7例后天性盲人进行fMRI实验研究,发现两组的反应幅度和范围不一样。虽然完全失明,但视觉皮质仍有反应,包括枕叶周围、楔叶和纺锤形皮质区及侧上枕叶和高级视觉皮质区。有人甚至认为视觉皮质参与语言的处理。 fMRI的临床应用研究 fMRI对脑肿瘤的应用研究fMRI最早应用于临床就是对脑肿瘤病人术前功能区的定位,这是因为fMRI在定位脑功能活动区方面具有较高的敏感性。在神经外科手术中最大程度地切除病灶,同时使主要的脑功能区域(如视觉、语言及感知运动皮质)得以保留是神经外科手术的目标。所以,正确辨认中央沟、中央前回、中央后回对确认功能区非常重要。但在实际手术中做到这些都非常困难。这是因为手术中术野暴露有限,加之病变常造成正常解剖结构的移位或变形。而脑皮质直接电刺激,一则会给病人造成一定的痛苦及伤害,定性数据只能在术后得到,尚不能用于术前的手术计划和手术风险的评估。而脑功能成像技术的出现,特别是fMRI技术的发展使术前无创伤地显示脑内病变与其邻近重要功能区的关系成为可能。利用fMRI获取的功能图,医师可用来制定最优手术方案。将由fMRI获得的功能定位图像与其脑结构图像进行融合,并经三维重建后,可明确显示病灶与周围脑组织、血管之间的关系。fMRI除可清楚辨认传统解剖标记外,还可提供额外功能,如手运动结节和中央沟静脉等。它们在fM-RI图像上的共同特点是易于辨认,恒定存在,具有较高的可信度和适用性。如Lehericy等用传统的解剖标记和额外的fMRI标记确定肿瘤与邻近脑功能区之间的关系,成功率达87%。尤其是当肿瘤及其周围水肿引起显著的占位效 应时,传统的解剖标记无法辨认,更显示了fMRI的特殊价值。目前,利用fMRI进行神经外科术前功能定位已经在许多医院开展,病人术前通过fMRI进行解剖和功能定位,并将fMRI信号登录在立体定向神经外科手术导航仪上,术中可进行手术导航,以最大限度切除肿瘤,取得了良好的手术效果。 fMRI对癫疒间的应用研究目前对难治性癫疒间的治疗除选用新抗癫疒间药物作添加治疗外,约有20%左右病人适合手术治疗,特别是有致疒间灶的难治性癫疒间。对难治性癫疒间来说,颞叶切除术比药物治疗效果好,它可以更好地控制癫疒间发作,降低死亡率。但颞叶切除术的成功与否和海马的切除范围以及由此引起的功能缺失密切相关。所以,术前对病人语言优势半球的确认以及记忆功能的定位就显得非常重要。fMRI在神经外科的癫疒间定位、手术方案制定等方面的应用,使手术的安全性及精确性明显增加,并可以提高癫疒间灶的切除率及癫疒间控制率,并发症亦明显减少。尤其MRI兼容设备的发展使得fMRI和脑电图(EEG)配合使用,可以精确定位异常放电的局部代谢改变,同时fMRI-EEG还可以进一步提供脑内单/多灶性异常放电的相关解剖和病理生理信息。 其他研究: 目前,fMRI在认知障碍方面的研究有很多报道,尤其对轻度认知障碍(mild cognitiveimpairment,MCI)和阿尔茨海默病(AD)的因果关系,利用fMRI,通过测定病人计算能力或视觉空间认识机能来定位损害的脑功能区,为早期诊断AD提供参考数据。fMRI在精神分裂症方面的研究包括动态观察精神分裂症病人的药物疗效亦有报道。另外,fMRI在脑卒中后脑功能康复,卒中后低频电疗法对大脑的影响,高血压病人注意功能的变化,甚至将fMRI技术应用到海洛因成瘾的研究中。其中对神经可塑性的fMRI研究,Bittar等认为脑内病灶的存在会改变脑功能区的成像特点,出现如功能区范围增大、功能区移位到另一解剖区域或出现额外的功能区。Alkadhi等发现有3种类型的运动功能皮质重组。Cao证实卒中病人健侧半球运动皮质的激活明显高于对照组。甚至听觉皮质也存在功能重组现象。以上研究充分表明,fMRI有助于客观评价神经系统疾病各种治疗方法的有效性以及病人术后功能的恢复情况。 PET的研究 【关键词】 PET;放射性核素;代谢图像;影像诊断 正电子发射断层扫描,positron emission tomography～PET,～是一种具有高科技含量的医学影像检查手段。正日益受到人们的关注和青睐。现将PET工作原理、诊断价值、主要特点和检查须知等介绍如下。 1 PET的工作原理 在进行PET检查时～受检者首先需要静脉注射放射性葡萄糖～它与普通葡萄糖类似～能被人体细胞所吸纳。放射性葡萄糖像普通葡萄糖一样～根据体内各部位代谢的不同需要而在 人体内分布开来～但它不能像普通葡萄糖那样完成正常代谢的全过程～而是被滞留在细胞内,1, 。放射性葡萄糖中的放射性核素是不稳定的～它就好像放在笔尖上的小球那样～总是会从高处掉下来～回到最稳定的状态～这一过程称为放射性衰变,即失去放射性,。以18F标记的放射性葡萄糖为例～大约每110min就会有一半的葡萄糖失去放射性～并且随着时间的推移～放射性会逐渐减少。放射性核素能发射出正电子～很快就与人体内的某个电子结合形成一对能量相等的光子～这对光子沿着互为相反的方向射出～被位于人体周围PET机器上的晶体探测器所捕捉～经过计算机处理～就能算出探测区域内每个位臵上到底出现过多少对光子。这些光子对的分布图～就是人体代谢情况的分布图～它清楚显示了人体的哪些区域葡萄糖多了或少了以及多少的程度。计算机把人体代谢情况分布图～以三维立体及各种方位断面图像的形式展现出来～医生就可以根据这些图像来进行分析诊断。 2 PET的诊断价值 根据PET的工作原理～可以得出这样的结论～PET所显示的就是人体代谢情况分布图。这种人体代谢图像对疾病的诊断有什么价值呢?大家知道～健康的人体～代谢是正常有序的;而患有疾病的人体～其代谢就会出现异常。因此～通过仔细观察人体的代谢图像～寻找异常情况～这就是疾病诊断的根据,2, 。人体代谢异常分为两种情况～一是代谢增高～二是代谢降低。异常情况不同～结合异常情况所出现的部位和程度～我们就可以诊断出人有可能患了什么样的疾病。 恶性肿瘤是代谢增高的最典型疾病～它是目前人类生命 的三大杀手之一。恶性肿瘤实际上就是肿瘤细胞在人体内无限制增生～消耗人体大量的葡萄糖为其生长提供能量～表现为所处位臵的代谢明显增高。PET在对其诊断中～突出表现在以下几个方面3, :一是提供了早期发现的有效手段。在恶性肿瘤还没有长成肿块时～其代谢异常就已经出现～通过PET检查就能发现～提高了早期发现的概率～也就提高了治愈的几率。二是提供了良恶性的鉴别方法。通过CT、MRI检查～发现了肿瘤～但它们有时难以辨别出良恶性。恶性肿瘤生长速度快～其细胞比正常细胞的葡萄糖代谢高出20多倍～而良性肿瘤生长缓慢～因而通过PET图 像的代谢增高～我们就可以鉴别良恶性。三是为寻找转移灶和原发灶提供了新途径。PET代谢图像可将人体的代谢全貌尽收眼底～很容易找到转移灶和原发灶～从而实现治疗决策的因病制宜～有的放矢～避免盲目治疗在健康和经济上给病人造成的不良后果。资料显示～做过PET检查的癌症病人～有1.3左右改变了原定的治疗方案。四是为治疗效果提供了判断依据并可评价预后。病人接受治疗时～多认为肿块缩小治疗才有效～其实不一定～形态的改变往往明显滞后于代谢变化～形态虽然没有改变～但若代谢已经完全抑制就表明癌细胞已被杀死。如果此时还继续治疗～只会增加治疗并发症～使病人更加衰竭。若出现广泛异常高代谢改变多预示着病人的生存期有限。 用PET对大脑进行检查发现～人在读报或读小说时～大脑的特定区域就会兴奋～表现出代谢增高。如果你有音乐天赋～在你听音乐时会显示出与常人兴奋区和兴奋程度的差别。对于癫痫病人～在癫痫发作与不发作时～大脑的代谢情况是不一样的。PET能告诉我们癫痫病人大脑的病灶部位～以便采取合适的治疗方法。人到中老年～有些人记忆力明显衰退～但是不是病呢?PET检查可提供依据。比如老年性痴呆症的患者～大脑的代谢是减低的～如果早期发现～就能提前做预防性治疗～从而改善老年人的生活质量。还有很多大脑的疾病～都可以通过PET来帮助诊断～如运动性障碍性疾病,帕金森病、舞蹈症,、脑血管疾病、多发性硬化等。 PET还能检查出冠心病心肌缺血的部位、范围～并对心肌活力加以准确评价～确定是否需要进行溶栓治疗、安放冠状动脉支架或进行冠状动脉搭桥手术。PET除了用于疾病诊断外～还可用于科学研究～这方面已经有较多的报道。如对戒毒的研究～对健康人空腹状态下心肌葡萄糖代谢的研究等。PET还可广泛用于临床科研和药物的研究与开发。它更能用于健康查体～让人们对自己的身体放心～充分体验生活。当然随着科技的发展～人们还会越来越多地发现PET的新用途。 3 PET的主要特点 由于PET所反映的是人体的代谢图像～这就使它与其他影像诊断设备相比具有独特的优越性。大家熟知的CT、MRI都是影像诊断的先进设备～它们所显示的都是人体的形态图像～所以使用CT、MRI进行疾病诊断～是以所看见的形态变化为基础的～但是疾病的形态变化往往不能提供准确、完整的诊断信息～特别在恶性肿瘤诊断方面～这种情况表现得尤为明显。恶性肿瘤形成的早期～人体并没有出现形态的变化～而代谢却发生了改变～PET早早就能发现它的影子。肿瘤是良性还是恶性～CT、MRI有时很难明确诊断～但PET可当机立断。恶性肿瘤是否转移～转移到哪了～范围有多大～这些对于CT、MRI都有不小的难度～但在PET代谢图像下却可清晰显示。为了充分发挥CT和PET的各自所长～科学家们又研制出了CT与PET一体化的CT-PET,4, 。CT-PET是将PET和CT信号探测器结合在一起～使用同一扫描床和同一图像处理系统进行PET和CT图像采集、处理和显示的一体化设备～使代谢显像与形态显像强强联合～优势互补～灵敏度高～特异性强～将影像诊断功能提升到了更高层次～实现了医学影像技术的―四定‖:定位,发现病变部位,、定性,判断病变的良恶性,、定量,分析病变进展程度,及定期,肿瘤的分期,。做到了一次检查～全身显像～立体透明～病变观察一目了然。 目前在临床使用的PET检查技术也并非十全十美。由于PET主要反映的是人体代谢图像～所以它在两方面表现欠佳:一是代谢改变不明显的疾病～PET显得手足无措～如某些特殊类型的恶性肿瘤由于发生脏器和肿瘤本身代谢的特殊 性而不能显示;二是少数良性病变也可因代谢活跃而表现为异常高代谢,5, ～即医学术语称之为的假阴性或假阳性。 4 PET的检查须知 作PET检查～首先要提前申请预约～由于所用放射性药物的特殊性～时间安排有严格规定。被检者检查前至少应禁食6h～因为进餐后血糖增高会影响药物的吸收。静脉注射药物后要放松休息45min左右～便于药物在体内参与代谢～分布均匀。检查前要排尿～避免由于检查时间长～使得药物经尿路排泄贮存在膀胱过多而干扰周围结构的显示。PET仪器的外 形与CT机类似～平躺在检查床上～没有不适～没有噪声～通常30min左右检查完毕。检查之后1，2d内医生会给出一份正式报告单～把检查情况详细告知。 PET显像所用放射性核素的半衰期很短,2，110min,～经过物理衰减和生物代谢两方面作用～显像药物在受检者体内存留时间不长。PET检查对人体的辐射剂量很低～通常低于X线照片的照射剂量～因此对于人体没有什么损害～必要时还可以重复检查～所以PET检查是安全可靠的。 参考文献 1 潘中允～主编.PET诊断学.北京:人民卫生出版社～2005.189-203. 2 嘉禾～主编.正电子发射体层显像,PET,图谱.北京:中国协和医科 大学出版社～2002.96-113. 3 杨星～李丽琴.PET检查的临床意义.华北国防医药～2005～17,2,: 148-149. 4 高硕.功能分子影像设备CT-PET及其临床应用.天津医药～2003～ 31,1,:61-64. 5 杨星～田嘉禾.18 F-FDG-PET显像中的非肿瘤摄取.中国医学影像学杂志～2004～12,5,:368-369. 作者单位:050082 石家庄 白求恩国际和平医院核医学科,杨星～张林～洪军～贾峰涛,;050081 石家庄 白求恩军医学院医学影像教研室,张永顺, (英文版 ) Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule > real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses. Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline, exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of 10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives, around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions < new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150 about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits. Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.