On Revenues
1
On Revenues
by Xenophon
Translation by H. G. Dakyns
On Revenues
2
Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a pupil of
Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, and was exiled from Athens.
Sparta gave him land and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
years before having to move once more, to settle in Corinth. He died in
354 B.C.
Revenues describes Xenophon's ideas to solve the problem of poverty
in Athens, and thus remove an excuse to mistreat the Athenian allies.
On Revenues
3
I
For myself I hold to the opinion that the qualities of the leading
statesmen in a state, whatever they be, are reproduced in the character of
the constitution itself.[1]
[1] "Like minister, like government." For the same idea more fully
expressed, see "Cyrop." VIII. i. 8; viii. 5.
As, however, it has been maintained by certain leading statesmen in
Athens that the recognised standard of right and wrong is as high at
Athens as elsewhere, but that, owing to the pressure of poverty on the
masses, a certain measure of injustice in their dealing with the allied
states[2] could not be avoided; I set myself to discover whether by any
manner of means it were possible for the citizens of Athens to be
supported solely from the soil of Attica itself, which was obviously the
most equitable solution. For if so, herein lay, as I believed, the antidote at
once to their own poverty and to the feeling of suspicion with which they
are regarded by the rest of Hellas.
[2] Lit. "the cities," i.e. of the alliance, {tas summakhidas}.
I had no sooner begun my investigation than one fact presented itself
clearly to my mind, which is that the country itself is made by nature to
provide the amplest resources. And with a view to establishing the truth of
this initial proposition I will describe the physical features of Attica.
In the first place, the extraordinary mildness of the climate is proved
by the actual products of the soil. Numerous plants which in many parts of
the world appear as stunted leafless growths are here fruit-bearing. And as
with the soil so with the sea indenting our coasts, the varied productivity
of which is exceptionally great. Again with regard to those kindly fruits of
earth[3] which Providence bestows on man season by season, one and all
they commence earlier and end later in this land. Nor is the supremacy of
Attica shown only in those products which year after year flourish and
grow old, but the land contains treasures of a more perennial kind. Within
its folds lies imbedded by nature an unstinted store of marble, out of which
are chiselled[4] temples and altars of rarest beauty and the glittering
splendour of images sacred to the gods. This marble, moreover, is an
On Revenues
4
obejct of desire to many foreigners, Hellenes and barbarians alike. Then
there is land which, although it yields no fruit to the sower, needs only to
be quarried in order to feed many times more mouths than it could as corn-
land. Doubtless we owe it to a divine dispensation that our land is veined
with silver; if we consider how many neighbouring states lie round us by
land and sea and yet into none of them does a single thinnest vein of silver
penetrate.
[3] Lit. "those good things which the gods afford in their seasons."
[4] Or, "arise," or "are fashioned."
Indeed it would be scarcely irrational to maintain that the city of
Athens lies at the navel, not of Hellas merely, but of the habitable world.
So true is it, that the farther we remove from Athens the greater the
extreme of heat or cold to be encountered; or to use another illustration,
the traveller who desires to traverse the confines of Hellas from end to end
will find that, whether he voyages by sea or by land, he is describing a
circle, the centre of which is Athens.[5]
[5] See "Geog. of Brit. Isles." J. R. and S. A. Green, ch. i. p. 7:
"London, in fact, is placed at what is very nearly the geometrical
centre of those masses of land which make up the earth surface of
the globe, and is thus more than any city of the world the natural
point of convergence for its different lines of navigation," etc. The
natural advantages of Boeotia are similarly set forth by Ephorus. Cf.
Strab. ix. 2, p. 400.
Once more, this land though not literally sea-girt has all the
advantages of an island, being accessible to every wind that blows, and
can invite to its bosom or waft from its shore all products, since it is
peninsular; whilst by land it is the emporium of many markets, as being a
portion of the continent.
Lastly, while the majority of states have barbarian neighbours, the
source of many troubles, Athens has as her next-door neighbours civilised
states which are themselves far remote from the barbarians.
On Revenues
5
II
All these advantages, to repeat what I have said, may, I believe, be
traced primarily to the soil and position of Attica itself. But these natural
blessings may be added to: in the first place, by a careful handling of our
resident alien[1] population. And, for my part, I can hardly conceive of a
more splendid source of revenue than lies open in this direction. Here you
have a self-supporting class of residents confering large benefits upon the
state, and instead of receiving payment[2] themselves, contributing on the
contrary to the gain of the exchequer by the sojourners' tax.[3] Nor, under
the term careful handling, do I demand more than the removal of
obligations which, whilst they confer no benefit on the state, have an air of
inflicting various disabilities on the resident aliens.[4] And I would further
relieve them from the obligation of serving as hoplites side by side with
the citizen proper; since, beside the personal risk, which is great, the
trouble of quitting trades and homesteads is no trifle.[5] Incidentally the
state itself would benefit by this exemption, if the citizens were more in
the habit of campaigning with one another, rather than[6] shoulder to
shoulder with Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, and barbarians from all
quarters of the world, who form the staple of our resident alien class.
Besides the advantage [of so weeding the ranks],[7] it would add a
positive lustre to our city, were it admitted that the men of Athens, her
sons, have reliance on themselves rather than on foreigners to fight her
battles. And further, supposing we offered our resident aliens a share in
various other honourable duties, including the cavalry service,[8] I shall be
surprised if we do not increase the goodwill of the aliens themselves,
whilst at the same time we add distinctly to the strength and grandeur of
our city.
[1] Lit. "metics" or "metoecs."
[2] {misthos}, e.g. of the assembly, the senate, and the dicasts.
[3] The {metoikion}. See Plat. "Laws," 850 B; according to Isaeus, ap.
Harpocr. s.v., it was 12 drachmae per annum for a male and 6
drachmae for a female.
[4] Or, "the class in question." According to Schneider (who cites the
On Revenues
6
{atimetos metanastes} of Homer, "Il." ix. 648), the reference is not
to disabilities in the technical sense, but to humiliating duties, such
as the {skaphephoria} imposed on the men, or the {udriaphoria} and
{skiadephoria} imposed on their wives and daughters in attendance
on the {kanephoroi} at the Panathenaic and other festival
processions. See Arist. "Eccles." 730 foll.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x.
(Eng. tr. G. Cornewall Lewis, p. 538).
[5] Or, reading {megas men gar o agon, mega de kai to apo ton
tekhnon kai ton oikeion apienai}, after Zurborg ("Xen. de Reditibus
Libellus," Berolini, MDCCCLXXVI.), transl. "since it is severe
enough to enter the arena of war, but all the worse when that implies
the abandonment of your trade and your domestic concerns."
[6] Or, "instead of finding themselves brigaded as nowadays with a
motley crew of Lydians," etc.
[7] Zurborg, after Cobet, omits the words so rendered.
[8] See "Hipparch." ix. 3, where Xenophon in almost identical words
recommends that reform. In the next place, seeing that there are at
present numerous building sites within the city walls as yet devoid of
houses, supposing the state were to make free grants of such land[9] to
foreigners for building purposes in cases where there could be no doubt as
to the respectability of the applicant, if I am not mistaken, the result of
such a measure will be that a larger number of persons, and of a better
class, will be attracted to Athens as a place of residence.
[9] Or, "offer the fee simple of such property to."
Lastly, if we could bring ourselves to appoint, as a new government
office, a board of guardians of foreign residents like our Guardians of
Orphans,[10] with special privileges assigned to those guardians who
should show on their books the greatest number of resident aliens --such a
measure would tend to improve the goodwill of the class in question, and
in all probability all people without a city of their own would aspire to the
status of foreign residents in Athens, and so further increase the revenues
of the city.[11]
[10] "The Archon was the legal protector of all orphans. It was his
duty to appoint guardians, if none were named in the father's will."--
On Revenues
7
C. R. Kennedy, Note to "Select Speeches of Demosthenes." The
orphans of those who had fallen in the war (Thuc. ii. 46) were
specially cared for.
[11] Or, "help to swell the state exchequer."
On Revenues
8
III
At this point I propose to offer some remarks in proof of the attractions
and advantages of Athens as a centre of commercial enterprise. In the first
place, it will hardly be denied that we possess the finest and safest
harbourage for shipping, where vessels of all sorts can come to moorings
and be laid up in absolute security[1] as far as stress of weather is
concerned. But further than that, in most states the trader is under the
necessity of lading his vessel with some merchandise[2] or other in
exchange for his cargo, since the current coin[3] has no circulation beyond
the frontier. But at Athens he has a choice: he can either in return for his
wares export a variety of goods, such as human beings seek after, or, if he
does not desire to take goods in exchange for goods, he has simply to
export silver, and he cannot have a more excellent freight to export, since
wherever he likes to sell it he may look to realise a large percentage on his
capital.[4]
[1] Reading {adeos} after Cobet, or if {edeos}, transl. "in perfect
comfort."
[2] Or, "of exchanging cargo for cargo to the exclusion of specie."
[3] I.e. of the particular locality. See "The Types of Greek Coins,"
Percy Gardner, ch. ii. "International Currencies among the Greeks."
[4] Or, "on the original outlay."
Or again, supposing prizes[5] were offered to the magistrates in charge
of the market[6] for equitable and speedy settlements of points in
dispute[7] to enable any one so wishing to proceed on his voyage without
hindrance, the result would be that far more traders would trade with us
and with greater satisfaction.
[5] Cf. "Hiero," ix. 6, 7, 11; "Hipparch." i. 26.
[6] {to tou emporiou arkhe}. Probably he is referring to the
{epimeletai emporiou} (overseers of the market). See Harpocr. s.v.;
Aristot. "Athenian Polity," 51.
[7] For the sort of case, see Demosth. (or Deinarch.) "c. Theocr."
1324; Zurborg ad loc.; Boeckh, I. ix. xv. (pp. 48, 81, Eng. tr.)
It would indeed be a good and noble institution to pay special marks of
On Revenues
9
honour, such as the privilege of the front seat, to merchants and
shipowners, and on occasion to invite to hospitable entertainment those
who, through something notable in the quality of ship or merchandise,
may claim to have done the state a service. The recipients of these honours
will rush into our arms as friends, not only under the incentive of gain, but
of distinction also.
Now the greater the number of people attracted to Athens either as
visitors or as residents, clearly the greater the development of imports and
exports. More goods will be sent out of the country,[8] there will be more
buying and selling, with a consequent influx of money in the shape of
rents to individuals and dues and customs to the state exchequer. And to
secure this augmentation of the revenues, mind you, not the outlay of one
single penny; nothing needed beyond one or two philanthropic measures
and certain details of supervision.[9]
[8] See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 24.
[9] See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15, 3.
With regard to the other sources of revenue which I contemplate, I
admit, it is different. For these I recognise the necessity of a capital[10] to
begin with. I am not, however, without good hope that the citizens of this
state will contribute heartily to such an object, when I reflect on the large
sums subscribed by the state on various late occasions, as, for instance,
when reinforcements were sent to the Arcadians under the command of
Lysistratus,[11] and again at the date of the generalship of Hegesileos.[12]
I am well aware that ships of war are frequently despatched and that
too[13] although it is uncertain whether the venture will be for the better
or for the worse, and the only certainty is that the contributor will not
recover the sum subscribed nor have any further share in the object for
which he gave his contribution.[14]
[10] "A starting-point."
[11] B.C. 366; cf. "Hell." VII. iv. 3.
[12] B.C. 362; cf. "Hell." VII. v. 15. See Grote, "H. G." x. 459;
Ephor. ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 54; Diod. Sic. xv. 84; Boeckh, ap. L.
Dindorf. Xenophon's son Gryllus served under him and was slain.
[13] Reading {kai tauta toutout men adelou ontos}, after Zurborg.
On Revenues
10
[14] Reading {[uper] on an eisenegkosi} with Zurborg. See his note,
"Comm." p. 25.
But for a sound investment[15] I know of nothing comparable with the
initial outlay to form this fund.[16] Any one whose contribution amounts
to ten minae[17] may look forward to a return as high as he would get on
bottomry, of nearly one-fifth,[18] as the recipient of three obols a day. The
contributor of five minae[19] will on the same principle get more than a
third,[20] while the majority of Athenians will get more than cent per cent
on their contribution. That is to say, a subscription of one mina[21] will
put the subscriber in possession of nearly double that sum,[22] and that,
moreover, without setting foot outside Athens, which, as far as human
affairs go, is as sound and durable a security as possible.
[15] "A good substantial property."
[16] Or, "on the other hand, I affirm that the outlay necessary to
form the capital for my present project will be more remunerative
than any other that can be named." As to the scheme itself see Grote,
"Plato," III. ch. xxxix.; Boeckh, op. cit. (pp. 4, 37, 136, 600 seq. Eng.
tr.) Cf. Demosth. "de Sym." for another scheme, 354 B.C., which
shows the "sound administrative and practical judgment" of the
youthful orator as compared with "the benevolent dreams and ample
public largess in which Xenophon here indulges." --Grote, op. cit. p.
601.
[17] L40:12:4 = 1000 drachmae.
[18] I.e. exactly 18 or nearly 20 per cent. The following table will
make the arithmetic clear:--
6 ob. = 1 drachma 10 minae = 6000 ob.
100 dr. = 1 mina = 1000 dr. 600 ob. =
1 mina 1000 dr.:180 dr.::100:18 therefore nearly 1/5 3 ob. (a day)
x 360 = 1080 ob. p.a. = nearly 20 per cent.
= 180 dr. p.a.
As to the 3 obols a day (= 180 dr. p.a.) which as an Athenian
citizen he is entitled to, see Grote, op. cit. p. 597: "There will be a
regular distribution among all citizens, per head and equally. Three
oboli, or half a drachma, will be allotted daily to each, to poor and
On Revenues
11
rich alike" [on the principle of the Theorikon]. "For the poor citizens
this will provide a comfortable subsistence, without any contribution
on their part; the poverty now prevailing will thus be alleviated. The
rich, like the poor, receive the daily triobolon as a free gift; but if
they compute it as interest for their investments, they will find that
the rate of interest is full and satisfactory, like the rate on bottomry."
On Revenues
12
Zurborg, "Comm." p. 25; Boeckh,
op. cit. IV. xxi. (p. 606, Eng. tr.);
and Grote's note, op. cit. p. 598.
[19] = L20:6:3 = 500 drachmae.
[20] = I.e. 36 per cent.
[21] = L4:1:3 = 100 drachmae.
[22] I.e. 180 per cent.
Moreover, I am of opinion that if the names of contributors were to be
inscribed as benefactors for all time, many foreigners would be induced to
contribute, and possibly not a few states, in their desire to obtain the right
of inscription; indeed I anticipate that some kings,[23] tyrants,[24] and
satraps will display a keen desire to share in such a favour.
[23] Zurborg suggests (p. 5) "Philip or Cersobleptes." Cf. Isocr. "On
the Peace," S. 23.
[24] I.e. despotic monarchs.
To come to the point. Were such a capital once furnished, it would be a
magnificent plan to build lodging-houses for the benefit of shipmasters in
the neighbourhood of the harbours, in addition to those which exist; and
again, on the same principle, suitable places of meeting for merchants, for
the purposes[25] of buying and selling; and thirdly, public lodging-houses
for persons visiting the city. Again, supposing dwelling-houses and stores
for vending goods were fitted up for retail dealers in Piraeus and the city,
they would at once be an ornament to the state and a fertile source of
revenue. Also it seems to me it would be a good thing to try and see if, on
the principle on which at present the state possesses public warships, it
would not be possible to secure public merchant vessels, to be let out on
the security of guarantors just like any other public property. If the plan
were found feasible this public merchant navy would be a large source of
extra revenue.
[25] Reading, with Zurborg, {epi one te}.
On Revenues
13
IV
I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of the
silver mines on a proper footing[1] would be followed by a large increase
in wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I would like, for
the benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out what the capacity of
these mines really is. You will then be in a position to decide how to turn
them to better account. It is clear, I presume, to every one that these mines
have for a very long time been in active operation; at any rate no one will
venture to fix the date at which they first began to be worked.[2] Now in
spite of the fact that the silver ore has been dug and carried out for so long
a time, I would ask you to note that the mounds of rubbish so shovelled
out are but a fractional portion of the series of hillocks containing veins of
silver, and as yet unquarried. Nor is the silver-bearing region gradually
becoming circumscribed. On the contrary it is evidently extending in
wider area from year to year. That is to say, during the period in which
thousands of workers[3] have been employed within the mines no hand
was ever stopped for want of work to do. Rather, at any given moment, the
work to be done was more than enough for the hands employed. And so it
is to-day with the owners of slaves working in the mines; no one dreams
of reducing the number of his hands. On the contrary, the object is
perpetually to acquire as many additional hands as the owner possibly can.
The fact is that with few hands to dig and search, the find of treasure will
be small, but with an increase in labour the discovery of the ore itself is
more than proportionally increased. So much so, that of all operations with
which I am acquainted, this is the only one in which no sort of jealousy is
felt at a further development of the industry.[4] I may go a step farther;
every proprietor of a farm will be able to tell you exactly how many yoke
of oxen are sufficient for the es