红山文化玉器功能之我见

红山文化玉器功能之我见 ——食品说、胚胎说、祭祀祷雨说 陕西师范大学历史文化学院 臧振 一、食品说 ‚玉为神灵食品?的观点～不是某人一时心血来潮～凭借灵感想象出来的,那是笔者多年前在读书中自然形成的观念。 在上世纪八十年代的‚文化热?中～我选择了‚巫术?作为研究课题。《蒙昧中的智慧——中国巫术》,华夏出版社1994年出版,是这一课题的成果。该书第九章有一段专讲上古巫师把玉器作为重要的道具。文中说到:‚近年来～人们在江苏、浙江等地新石器时代晚期墓葬中～发现不少精美的玉器……从它们放臵在死者周围这点来看～最主要的功能应当还是避邪～是防御企图危害尸体的鬼魅。? 紧接着～笔者便引用了《山海经》中关于古玉功能的最为重要的一段,《西山经〃密山》,: ‚其中多白玉～是有玉膏……瑾瑜之玉为良～坚栗精密～浊泽而有光,五色发作～以和柔刚。天地鬼神～是食是飨,君子服之～以御不祥。? 接着说:‚很清楚了～玉的作用有两个～一是天地鬼神的食品～二是君子佩带它可以抵御不祥之物。? ‚到了商代～商人就普遍用玉作祭祀上帝的礼物,这礼物放在盛食品的‘豆’里面。近代学者王国维考证说～‘礼’字本来就是豆里面放着两块玉。?,见该书161页。王氏原话见《观堂集林》卷六《释 礼》, ‚如果没有上古巫术对玉的神化～就无法解释为什么夏商周时期玉成为礼神、镇国的珍宝。?,见该书162页, 该页还引用了《周礼〃春官〃大宗伯》‚以玉作六器～以礼天地四方。以苍璧礼天～以黄琮礼地～以青圭礼东方～以赤璋礼南方～以白琥礼西方～以玄璜礼北方?。其后不久笔者就发现了东汉郑玄对这段话的重要注解: ‚礼东方……太昊、句芒食焉～礼南方……炎帝、祝融食焉～礼西方……少昊、蓐收食焉～礼北方……颛顼、玄冥食焉? 郑玄以人帝人神相配于四方～这完全可能是晚出的思想。但玉作为食品献祭而被帝神飨用～应该是由来久远的观念。 以上是上世纪八十年代后期我从文献中得到的认识。 1989年秋～台北‚中研院史语所?同仁到西安访问～邓淑苹女士随访。在座谈会上～我即以玉琮功能问题请教邓先生。邓先生即以海外学者三种观点相告～引起了我的极大兴趣:1、张光直先生认为～琮外方内圆中空～‚象征天地的贯穿?～琮是巫师‚通天地的法器?。2、林巳奈夫先生认为～琮是宗庙祭祀中请神主凭依的器物～琮的中孔是神灵凭依的小室。3、邓先生自己认为～琮方象天、璧圆象地～琮与璧相搭配～组合成贯通天地的法器。三种观点有一个共同点～即把琮看作巫师沟通天地的法器。 这与我在大陆刊物上读到的流行观点很不相同。大陆学者的意见大致可分为两类:1、避邪,2、显示财富和身份。我的看法是～用随 葬物品来‚显示其等级、财富和权力?～这是用今人的观念想象上古先民,那生活在以血缘关系为纽带的大家族中、笼罩在浓郁的鬼神观念下的先民～是不需要用实物来‚显示?其地位的。,这一点～也可用以说明红山文化积石冢大墓为什么‚唯玉为葬?,至于‚避邪?和‚巫师通天地法器?的说法～我能接受。但其具体的原理～我还很难放弃‚玉为鬼神食品?的先入之见。 1991年秋～我得到去北京大学考古系做‚访问学者?的机会～即以古玉文化作为研究课题。应笔者请求～很快就收到邓淑苹先生寄来她有关古玉研究的系列论文。尤其是《百年来古玉研究的回顾与展望》一文～成为笔者研究的向导。依该文《参考书目》～又在北大图书馆复印了杨建芳先生《中国古玉书目》～开始系统阅读有关文献。读到章鸿钊先生《石雅》～其上编第三卷专有《食玉》一节～广泛引经据典～集中叙说～令我大开眼界～更加深信玉为鬼神食品的观念由来久远～影响广泛。与此同时～感觉到海外三家关于琮为‚通天地法器?的说法隔靴挠痒～未得要领～甚而至于有牵强附会和想象的成分～经不起考古发现的奇特葬俗的推敲。若用‚玉为鬼神食品?的观念去观察分析～诸多疑问涣然冰释。于是笔者有《玉琮功能研究述评》,文博1993年第五期,、《玉琮功能刍议》,考古与文物1993年第四期,等文的发表,认为在祭祀或葬礼中～琮璧等均是被巫师或族长作为食品陈设或瘗埋～用以吸引鬼神来飨。所谓‚沟通天地?亦即此意～不必求之过深。 二、胚胎说 上世纪八十年代～时代早于良渚文化的红山文化玉器得到确认。比起良渚文化玉器来～红山玉器形制更为古怪奇特～功能更为扑朔迷离。笔者面对所谓玉猪龙、钩云形器、马蹄形器等等～也曾百思不得其解。约在2001年～笔者收到邓淑苹先生寄来《群玉别藏续集》,台北 故宫博物院1999年10月初版,。书中谓玉猪龙‚应是表达哺乳动物在胚胎期的造型?～此语对于笔者来说～可谓振聋发聩:在该书第13页～邓先生说到～要了解红山系玉器的深层含义～须注意下述现象:‚红山居民喜爱雕琢昆虫在幼虫或蛹～或是哺乳动物在胚胎期的模样～应是强调羽化或蜕变的生命力。?邓先生出于其学术传统～比较注意古玉文化的形而上的含义～立即想到蛹或胚胎的‚生命力?。而笔者出于对中国原始巫术简单的思维方式以及原始宗教祭祀方式的了解和‚玉为神灵食品?的先入之见～立即想到蛹或胚胎本是原始人最美味的食品～以玉琢成蛹或胚胎献祭给鬼神是顺理成章的事情。 近年来见到一些有关红山文化的著述也提及玉猪龙与胚胎的关系。例如陈逸民、陈莺《红山玉器收藏与鉴赏》,上海大学出版社2004年4月,‚我们发现～它很象动物的胚胎～尤其象猪的胚胎?。由此可见‚胚胎说?绝不是某个人的错觉而是客观事实。不过～最先发现者应当是最有功劳的。据笔者所见～在1995年10月出版的《群玉别藏》中～邓淑苹先生已有类似议论:‚值得注意的现象是～红山先民常雕琢昆虫在幼虫转化为成虫前的状态～如蝉蛹与蚕蛹,或某种动物在胚胎期的模样～如猪龙。?,见该书第24页,。笔者囿于闻见～认为这便是最早正式发表的红山玉猪龙‚胚胎说?。 近日在网上见到一位叫‚肖不然?的先生写了一篇文章《误读的文明——也说红山玉猪龙》～一开头就教训起人来:‚非常可惜的是～专家们受知识水平所限～把神圣的人本崇拜错判为对猪的崇拜～还为玉龙起了一个谬种流传的名字——玉猪龙……不仅亵渎了祖先～也让今天龙的子孙坠入了不明就里的雾霭之中。?‚稍有胚胎学常识的人都会知道～脊椎动物的胚胎在一定阶段十分相似……张冠李戴必是大谬不然。把人的胚胎型玉饰判定为猪的胚胎型玉饰～便是这种谬误的源流。?文章口气很大～吓得我们赶紧到图书馆找到《哺乳动物胚胎学》,科学出版社2004年,认真查阅。我们看到～猪胚胎在23天前的确与人胚胎十分相似,到第28天～外耳加长～上颌明显外突～已经与人胚胎有了明显的区别,到约36天～猪胎儿已完全具备猪的形态:上颌突出～鼻孔朝前,到约55天～外耳已高过头顶～到约109天～外耳大小与常见红山文化玉猪龙极为相似。我们再看人的胚胎～始终没有大耳和向前的鼻孔。我们知道～胚胎演化是该动物进化史的缩影。人类从哺乳类灵长目进化而来～其胚胎演化过程中不可能出现哺乳类偶蹄目猪科的特征。是我们把人的胚胎当成了猪胚胎～还是‚不然?先生把猪胚胎当成了人胚胎,是谁在亵渎祖先、传播谬误,不用我们多说了。 三、祭祀祷雨说 祷雨～在上古时代中国北方地区的社会生活中～具有十分重要的地位。这一点～也是笔者在了解上古巫术文化的过程中自然形成的观念。 拙著《蒙昧中的智慧》第八章专门介绍求雨巫术: ‚……求雨要算中国巫术中最为源远流长的内容了。自从中原大地出现了栽培农作～人们发现作物丰歉与降雨有关～便把巫术用于求雨……在距今约八千年的新石器时代早期～农作物的栽培已成为主要的生活来源。这里虽有大河～但人们尚无力作大面积人工灌溉～干旱随时可能发生～也就随时需要求雨。? ‚……求雨的历史是这样漫长～几乎可以说～它与中华民族的文明史形影不离,而随着文明的进展～求雨巫术的方法也随着演变。?,见该书148页, ‚本书第二章已经多次涉及早期巫术求雨的壮烈场面……在那里～求雨巫术的成败～又与政治斗争有着十分密切的联系。启求雨失败～羿射日成功～导致夏王朝嗣统中绝四十年之久。桀‘不务德’～‘武伤百姓’～那太阳又毒辣辣地老不隐没～于是人民发出了‘是日曷丧～予及汝皆亡:’的呼喊。,见《尚书〃汤誓》,盼望商汤伐桀～‚若大旱之望雨也?。,见《孟子〃滕文公下》,代之而起的商汤～因为久旱几乎被焚于桑林。有商一代～连年求雨～被焚的女巫又何止千万:其‘后立王’武乙、帝乙～‘射天’求雨～又招来周人多少非议:西周以后～巫师式微～,然求雨活动在社会上乃至国家政治生活中仍很重要。,其求雨之法～无非歌舞之类～称之为‘雩’,如《大雅〃云汉》～便是求雨巫歌。,其中‚圭璧既卒～宁莫我听?说的就是以玉为食品献给神灵,求雨不灵～巫歌哀辞发展为怨天疑天思潮～与政治斗争相呼应～在王室衰微过程中推波助澜。?,见该书149页～括号中为 笔者新加补充说明, 关于夏启乞雨、后羿射日、商汤祷雨、以及甲骨文、史记、诗经、楚辞等古文献中有关求雨巫术的记载～该书第二章有较为详细的叙述～这里就不重复了。 本文上节我们已论证了玉‚猪龙?是以玉琢出猪胚胎作为美味献给鬼神。本节上文我们又谈到求雨巫术在当时社会生活中的重要地位。现在我们已可以得出初步的结论:玉‚猪龙?作为巫术道具～多用于乞雨。 自红山文化时期开始～以玉‚猪龙?求雨的巫术绵延不绝,而随着文化演变～人们对于这种巫术的原理的解读～也会发生演变。到东汉时期许慎编著《说文解字》就对此作了如下概括: ‚珑～祷旱玉龙 ,文从玉从龙～龙亦声。? 清儒引经据典～对此字有进一步解说。桂馥《说文解字义证》: ‚……《字林》:‘祷旱玉为珑’。《广韵》:‘珑～圭为龙文’。《书〃典宝〃序》‘俘厥宝玉’《传》云:‘玉以礼神～使无水旱之灾。故取而宝之’。《楚语》:‘玉足以庇荫嘉谷～使无水旱之灾～则宝之’注云:‘玉～祭祀之玉也’。钱君大昭曰:‘《山海经》:应龙在地下～故数旱。旱而为应龙状～乃得大雨。祷旱之玉为龙文者～即此。’? 桂馥引《字林》、《广韵》及《尚书》、《国语》、《山海经》等先秦典籍为证～说明‚玉以礼神～使无水旱之灾?实为上古先民之通识。后世以玉为龙形～其源头应与红山文化玉‚猪龙?密切相关。 红山文化‚玉猪龙?一词～据笔者推想～应是八十年代中期依据 考古工作者发掘的实物传出的名称。然而却与历史上祷旱求雨的‚猪龙?不谋而合: 孙守道、郭大顺在《论辽河流域的原始文明与龙的起源》,1984年《文物》第6期,文中指出～‚兽形玉?首部‚具有吻前突、前端并列双鼻孔的特征～同时有特大的头部、宽厚的双耳和肥硕的躯体～吻上和眼周还有表现颜面皮皱的线纹多道～标本1更有露在嘴外的獠牙～这在六畜中唯猪最为近似。? 该文进一步谈到这猪首‚龙身?形玉器与龙的关系: ‚龙的起源与诞生～当与原始农业密切相关。养猪与原始农业相伴随。我国原始农业氏族素以养猪著称。东山嘴红山文化遗址就发现大量猪骨。龙首源于猪首～生动地说明～这种似乎高不可攀的神物～最初并非单纯幻想的产物～而是原始农人从日常生产和生活中创造出来的形象。如前所述～红山文化具有以石犁耜为主要标志的发达的原始农业～所以～龙的形象首见于红山文化并非偶然。? 该文又已将这猪首龙身的‚兽形玉?与祭祀乞雨活动联系起来: ‚龙崇拜～自古以来就是同农业丰歉有直接关系的天的崇拜联系在一起的～所谓‘云从龙’、‘飞龙在天’,《周易》,、‘水以龙’,《周礼〃考工记》,等等～都反映了龙与农事、天象、祈雨活动的关系。这种观念的起源～可追溯到原始时期的祭祀活动。文献记载和考古发现都已证明～猪是祭祀常物。? 孙、郭二先生的这篇文章～是我近二十年来思考红山文化玉器功能的向导。 在这篇文章中～‚玉猪龙?的名称已呼之欲出。但作为严谨的学术论文～该文始终只称其为‚兽形玉?。这是可以理解的。九十年代～郭大顺先生又称其为‚玉雕龙?～仍不称‚猪龙?,《牛河梁红山文化遗址与玉器精粹》文物出版社1997年9月,。同时～又有改称其为‚熊龙?的倾向～,见该书46页及注释51,这就让笔者难于接受了。 我认为～关键在于包括郭大顺先生在内的很多学者～把红山文化遗址中发现的以玉制作的献祭物品当作了崇拜和祭祀的对象。从孙～郭二先生文可知～一方面～他们很了解～‚文献记载和考古发现都已证明～猪是祭祀常物?,同时他们又认为～与猪首有关的‚龙形玉、兽形玉?是‚被神化了的神灵崇拜物?。在当时～猪～究竟是献祭的牺牲品～还是祭祀的对象,孙～郭二先生用了一种模糊的说法:‚在祈天、求雨、祈防洪涝的祭祀活动中～自然就选择它作为沟通人神间的信物～从而出现了被神化的猪的种种传说～其中就有作为雷雨之神的传说。?,见该文第16页,本来～作为‚祭祀常物?的猪胚胎或猪肉本身并无神性,在红山时代～‚玉猪龙?在求雨巫术中～是作为献祭的牺牲、美味食品埋入坎坛～或作为巫师或首领的随葬品埋入地下的。‚沟通人神间的信物?的说法～应该是现代人的想象。 然而～以‚猪龙?求雨的风俗绵延数千年不断。如前引拙文所说～‚随着文明的进展～求雨巫术的方法也随着演变。?‚猪龙?也从神灵的食品演变成能够呼风唤雨的地下鬼神。古文献、古诗词中涉及风云雷雨诸神与猪、龙有关的内容可谓俯拾即是。人们尽可以在《古今图书集成》、《古今事文类聚》《太平御览》、《格致镜源》之类类书中找 到～也可以利用现代技术在网上搜寻。本文限于篇幅～不再征引。 笔者在拙著《中国古玉文化》,中国书店2001年1月出版,《中编》第八节《动物类玉器》中～谈及红山文化玉龙与求雨的关系时～曾引用北宋苏东坡诗《次韵舒尧文祈雪雾猪泉》: ……岂知泉下有猪龙～卧枕雷车踏阴轴。前年太守为旱祷～雨点随人如撒菽…… 我们看～‚猪龙?在地下操纵雨雪～俨然神灵了。所引原诗前面的两句是‚苍鹅无罪亦可怜～斩颈横盘不敢哭?～说苍鹅作为牺牲献给原为牺牲现为雨雪神灵的猪龙。颇为有趣。然而～不能据此认为红山时代‚玉猪龙?已经有了神灵的地位。 在坚信‚玉为神灵食品?说的笔者看来: 红山文化玉制猪胚胎是献给神灵的食品～不是龙神。 牛河梁十六地点4号墓主头下的玉鸟无非是被‚斩颈?的‚苍鹅?之类～也不是甚么凤凰。 同墓墓主左侧胯下的玉人更不是什么神灵～不过是献给墓主的奴仆。 在红山时代～人们顶礼膜拜的神灵不用玉制更不会放在墓中～而是用泥土塑造且臵于高处的女神之类。 拙著《中国古玉文化》还涉及东山嘴出土那件‚双龙首璜?和三官甸子出土那件‚双猪首三孔器?的功能。先说‚双龙首璜?: ‚人们认为～璜的造型似与虹有联系。《太平御览》卷14引《搜神记》:‘孔子修《春秋》～制《孝经》～既成～孔子斋戒～向北斗星而 拜～告备于天。乃有赤气若虹～自上而下～化为玉璜。’……甲骨文中～虹字作两头龙形,原注:见于省吾《甲骨文字释林》中华书局1979年版～2,6页《释虹》,。宋沈括《梦溪笔谈》说:‘世传虹能入溪涧饮水……虹两头皆垂涧中’。……现在红山文化出土双龙首璜～证明这种观念由来久远。《山海经〃海外东经》‘虹虹在其北～各有两首’～也可证这种观念源自上古。?,见该书92,93页, 再说‚双猪首三孔器?: ‚1979年凌源县三官甸子城子山红山文化遗址出土一件猪头形玉饰～对于猪头特征把握得十分准确,07年10月笔者按:近年有学者将此件称为‚双熊首?器～笔者实难苟同,那略微上翘的鼻头和下垂的大耳～非猪莫属,。器中钻三个直径1.9厘米的圆孔……两头为猪头～中琢有圆圈～这意味着什么,……又《山海经〃海外西经》:巫咸国之东～有‘并封’～‘其状如彘～前后皆有首’。三官甸子的双头猪～是否就是‘并封’,?,见该书139,140页, 既然双龙首璜象征大雨前后出现于天空的虹～以玉琢成～作为巫师求雨作法时的道具～就完全是顺理成章的事情。至于双猪首三孔器～应该就是文献中的‚并封?。‚并封?与求雨有什么关系呢,我们再来看《山海经》。 《山海经》本为上古巫师代代相传的图册～经文则是代代巫师口耳相传的解说词,到战国时期文字普及～巫师将其书之于简帛～附于图后～出现大同小异的不同版本。西汉末年～刘向、刘歆父子奉命清理国家图书馆馆藏典籍～刘歆遂将不同版本《山海经》汇集成书。东 晋郭璞、陶潜曾见其图～其后战乱流散～失其图仅存文字。今本所见图为后世据想象补绘。,袁珂《山海经校注》上海古籍出版社1980年7月～第484页,我们今天读《山海经》～应随时联想其图～可更明白。 上文‚并封?～在‚巫咸国?之东,《经》文‚巫咸国?之南～有‚女丑之尸?。这‚女丑?坐在山顶～头顶有十个太阳,因为被晒得受不了～‚以右手鄣其面?～‚十日炙杀之?。显然～这是一幅女巫求雨图。‚并封?就画在女巫的右上方。在图中～‚巫咸国?的形象是‚右手操青蛇～左手操赤蛇?,这又让我们想到《海外东经》的‚雨师妾?～其形象‚两手各操一蛇～左耳有青蛇～右耳有赤蛇?。据晋郭璞和清郝懿行的注解～雨师‚号呼?～就能‚起雨?。在‚雨师妾?的南边有‚汤谷?～是‚十日所浴?的地方。该处‚水中有大木～九日居下枝～一日居上枝?～九个太阳在下面休息～一个太阳升上去～这是正常情况,如果‚十日并出?～天下大旱～‚焦稼禾～杀草木?,《淮南子〃本经训》,～那就需要后羿来射杀九日了。 由上述《山海图》中情形可见～‚并封?与求雨抗旱应该是有密切关系的。 与此同时～我们由‚并封?之三孔～联想到牛河梁祭坛和积石冢周围成排竖臵的陶制筒形器～会不会是求雨巫术的道具呢,器为筒形而成排竖臵～莫名其妙～也只有用原始思维方式的巫术观念才能解说。因为实在没有更恰当的解释～我们毋宁相信其为求雨巫术道具之说。 由此笔者联想到红山文化的‚斜口筒形器?,即本文前面所谓‚马 蹄形器?,。因数次出土于墓主头部,如牛河梁第二地点一号冢4号墓、21号墓,～又被学者们称为‚束发器?或‚箍形器?。器底口径约7厘米～上口径约10厘米～用以束发～似乎太粗。且此器未必皆出土于头部～如第十六地点4号墓‚斜口筒形器?就出于胸部,墓主头下却垫一宽约20厘米的‚玉凤?。又第二地点一号冢27号墓墓主头侧臵‚勾云形大玉佩?～长28.6厘米,第五地点一号冢1号墓墓主头下臵两玉璧。这些显然与头饰无关。所以有理由认为～‚斜口筒形器?与头部装饰无必然联系。笔者倾向于认为～‚斜口筒形器?亦是求雨巫术的道具。 研究红山文化玉器～难以回避对于‚勾云形器?功能的解说。在前贤所作的诸多解说中～笔者赞同尤仁德先生提出的‚云气说?,《勾云形佩及相关器物探研》见《故宫文物月刊》143期,。至于琢为‚云气?的用途～依笔者拙见～自然是为求雨。具体使用方法～应如郭大顺先生所说～其后有象鼻穿固定于它物上～‚与手执的斧钺或权杖一类有关?,《红山文化勾云形器研究》～见《故宫文物月刊》164期,～笔者认为～巫师将安装得类似权杖的勾云形器执于手中作法～为的是吸引上天来云降雨。 由于没有明确的地层关系证据～笔者不敢断言～带‚齿?的‚勾云形器?晚于不带‚齿?的‚勾云形器?。但是～若用‚求雨巫术道具?来解说～由不带‚齿?到带‚齿?～恰好反映了巫师在求雨过程中对于道具的‚模拟?功能要求的提高。所谓‚齿?～就是积雨云下面下雨的象征。 现在～我想引用辽宁省博物馆周晓晶先生的话作为本文的结语: ‚在20世纪的勾云形器研究中～多偏重于对其本身某些因素的研究～却忽视了它的整个考古环境及社会背景……红山文化玉器是由距今五六千年的红山先民制作和使用的～它的奇异造型一定是适应它的独特功能～而这二者又都取决于当时特殊的文化背景。因此～要正确阐释红山文化玉勾云形器的创型理念和使用功能～就必须把它还原到红山文化的社会环境中去考察。?,《红山文化勾云形器研究回顾及新探》～见《鞍山师范学院学报》2004,02～第6卷,1,第62页, 笔者自信～巫师祷雨即是当时特殊的社会文化背景,本文正是在这方面进行了一些思考～提出了一些不同的观点。当然～本文绝非最后结论,笔者愿与学界同仁共同努力～早日解开红山文化玉器功能之谜。 臧振 丁亥霜降 定稿于陕西师大文渊楼 古玉功能摭辨 ——玉为神灵食品说 一、文献中的古玉功能问题 古玉功能之成为问题～实始于2000年前。 秦始皇听李斯言～‚有敢偶语诗书者弃市～以古非今者族?。焚书坑儒～欲尽愚天下之民～上古文明～几于中绝。汉承秦火之余～视三代如梦境～搜求遗篇断简～所存有限,况世遗俗革～人亡书残～欲追先王之绪～谈何容易: 儒学经典～赖儒生整理～口耳相传～以‚今文?著之简帛～其间音同字异、形近而讹者不在少数。西汉博士～谨守师法。刘歆搜出些古文经～便引起太常博士们的激烈反对。新莽后汉之际～十多年大动乱～经传诠释进一步与先秦脱节。章帝建初四年,公元79年,白虎观会议～儒学经典被附会以微言大义～杂糅以阴阳五行～以皇帝的名义制成定论。本来朴实的上古观念～变得深奥玄远。 《白虎通》言及古玉功能有所谓‚五瑞?说: 何谓五瑞,谓圭璧琮璜璋也……璜以征召～璧以聘问～璋以发兵～圭以信质～琮以起土功之事也。 在儒学经典所反映的殷周时期～所谓‚五瑞?有没有这些功能呢,可以说找不到证据。且看《白虎通》解说这些功能的理由: 圭以为信者何,圭者兑上～象物始生见于上也,信莫著于作见～故以圭为信～而见万物之始～莫不自洁。圭之为言～洁也。上兑～阳也,下方～阴也。阳尊故其礼顺备也。在位东方～阳见义于上也。 据考古发现上古圭类玉器看～圭实源于戈矛类兵刃。汉人所谓‚象物始生?、‚信?、‚顺?云云～以古人之耳听来～实在莫名其妙。 璧以聘问何,璧者方中圆外～象地,地道安宁而出财物～故以璧为聘问也。方中～阴德方也,圆外～阴系于阳也。阴德盛于内～故见象于内～位在中央。璧之为言～积也。中央～故有天地之象。所以据用也。内方象地～外圆象天也。 璧竟然与‚孔方兄?联系起来～令人哑然失笑。考古尚未见到这样的古璧～可知此亦汉代经师信口雌黄。 璜所以征召何,璜者半璧～位在北方～北阴极而阳始起～故象半阴～阳气始施～征召万物～故以征召也。 考古发现璜多为古人随身佩饰器～有多至七八枚、十余枚相串成佩者～难以想象璜与‚征召?有何干系。 璋以发兵何,璋～半圭～位在南方～南方阳极而阴始起。兵亦阴也～故以发兵也…… 按学术界对璋之原型争议较多～1王永波先生认为源于耒耜。2不论如何～以阴阳五行释璋有‚发兵?功能～不是上古先民的思想。以琮为‚起土功之事?的信物～更无证据: 琮之为言圣也～象万物之宗聚圣也～功之所成～故以起土功发众也……内圆象阳～外直为阴～外牙而内凑～象聚会也～故谓之琮。 迄今为止考古发现的琮～皆出于墓葬或祭祀坑。从时代看～琮盛行于新石器时代良诸文化～至殷周已很少见～战国以降～琮已属传世品。而春秋以前的文献中不见琮的踪影～可见当时日常社会生活中已 不用琮～以琮为‚起土功之事?的信物～真如梦呓。 由上述可知～东汉时期对古玉功能的理解～深深打上了东汉思想的烙印～不可据以研究上古。 先秦文献言及古玉功能而最完备者数《周礼》。《周礼》成书时代～历来聚讼纷纭～较平允者应为何休说:出于战国时人之手。3《周礼》作者确属高人～其努力掇拾周朝典制～为我们保存了不少上古三代古玉文化的实况。但战国时‚礼坏乐崩?～诸子百家各逞其能。《周礼》作者本意不在探讨历史～而在为新时代国家机构绘制蓝图～故《周礼》难免打上战国时代烙印～这是通过《周礼》探究上古三代玉文化必须注意的。 《周礼〃春官〃大宗伯》: 以玉作六瑞～以等邦国。王执镇圭～公执桓圭～侯执信圭～伯执躬圭～子执谷璧～男执蒲璧。 镇、桓、信、躬四种圭具体是什么样子～学者们极力从传世品或发掘品中寻其真相～迄今无定论。笔者认为这是《周礼》作者的编派～不是周代实情。显明的证据是～其后所列谷、蒲纹璧～殷周时期尚未出现～战国秦汉年间才流行起来。4至于说以不同名称的玉圭来‚等邦国?～是否周代实情也很值得怀疑。早于《周礼》的文献中～见不到这样的记载。《左传〃定公四年》载周公封伯禽于鲁～赐的是‚夏后氏之璜?～不是什么圭,封康叔、唐叔～则未见有瑞玉。笔者认为～所谓以物品来‚等邦国?是战国时代的思想～因为殷周时期～以血缘亲疏为纽带～以鬼神监临人世～哪里用得着靠某种名称的‚瑞玉?来 证明诸侯的等级身份,《大宗伯》又云: 以玉作六器～以礼天地四方。以苍璧礼天～以黄琮礼地～以青圭礼东方～以赤璋礼南方～以白琥礼西方～以玄璜礼北方。 ‚六器?讲祭祀神灵～从《左传》、《诗经》、《尚书》等典籍看～以玉器献祭神灵～或沉河～或瘗埋～或臵于坎坛～这一点毫无疑义。但礼天地四方要分别六种器形和色泽～于上古文献无征～于考古发现无证。故可肯定～这点是战国儒生的编派。 《大宗伯》讲古玉功能～一是‚等邦国?～二是‚礼天地四方?。前者未必可信～后者可以相信～但不可全信。 《周礼〃春官〃典瑞》较为全面地展示了作者对古玉功能的理解～可归纳为一、朝聘～二、祭祀～三、符节～四、殓尸。 朝聘: 王执镇圭～缫藉五采五就～以朝日。 公执桓圭……子执谷璧～男执蒲璧～缫旨二采二就～以朝觐宗遇会同于王。 瑑圭璋璧琮～缫皆二采一就～覜以聘。 《左传〃昭公五年》载楚薳启疆说到‚朝聘有圭～享覜有璋?,《论语〃乡党》说孔子‚执圭～鞠躬如也?。可以相信～至少在春秋时期～圭璋等曾作为使节聘问行礼的凭据。 祭祀: 四圭有邸已祀天～旅上帝。 两圭有邸以祀地～旅四望。 裸圭有瓒以肆先王。 圭璧以祀日月星辰。 璋邸射以祀山川。 对自然神、祖先神的祭祀～在上古是与战争并列的最重要的事情～而祭祀活动离不开玉～这与文献与考古发现中都有许多证据。这点～下文还将涉及。 符节: 珍圭以征守～以恤灾荒。 牙璋以起军旅～以治兵守。 谷圭以和难～以聘女。 琬圭以治德～以结好。 琰圭以易行～以除慝。 以上诸条～在春秋以前的文献中证据薄弱～似不可信。如发兵须以玉璋为符节～聘女须以谷圭～都是作者依据战国时代特征而的～放到以血缘关系为核心的殷周社会是不伦不类的。 殓尸: 驵圭璋璧琮琥璜之渠眉～疏璧琮以殓尸。 大丧～共饭玉、含玉、赠玉。 玉器在墓葬中多有发现～以玉殓尸确凿可信。至于郑玄注所谓‚取向方明?、‚通于天地?之类～以上古三代考古发现核对～实属无稽之谈。 除上述四方面～《典瑞》还提到以裸圭‚裸宾客?～以璋‚造赠宾 客?～以及‚土圭?度日影、璧羡量长度。应该说～赠宾客与古人对玉的特殊观念没有必然联系～作仪器也不一定非用玉不可～因此我们有理由不将此二项看作古玉的重要功能。 《周礼》而外～《礼记〃玉藻》则专言佩玉: 古之君子必佩玉。趋以《采齐》～行以《肆夏》～周还中规～折还中矩～进则揖之～退则扬之～然后玉锵鸣也。 君子无故玉不去身～君子于玉比德焉。 严格说来～《礼记》非‚经?～且问世较晚。但所载佩玉风尚～《诗经》中描绘甚多～考古发现更是可作充分证明。 研究古玉功能者还常引《越绝书》风胡子对楚王问中的几句: 黄帝之时～以玉为兵～以伐树木、为宫室、斫地,夫玉亦神物也～又遇 圣主使然～死而龙藏。 此语中有两点甚可注意:一是早期用玉～是实用工具,二是玉为‚神物?～有神性～死后用以随葬,‚龙藏?即垄臧,。 综上所述～文献中所载古玉功能～主要是朝聘,等邦国,、祭祀(礼天地四方)、符节、殓尸(龙臧)、佩饰、实用工具等六项。我们分析～在上古三代～其中最重要的功能～是祭祀和殓尸～实用工具是其源头～其余功能可谓由祭祀、殓尸引申而来。而祭祀和殓尸这两项功能的更深层次的动因～在于古人对玉有一种神秘的认识:玉为神灵的食品。 二、玉为神灵食品 玉器之珍贵～首先在于玉料本身特殊的物理属性。在自然界所矿 物中～它是韧性最强的一种,其硬度又相当高～不亚于今日钢铁小刀,其结构致密～便于制作成各种形状。石器时代～先民为制出得心应手的石器～敲遍了各种类型的岩矿。在旧石器时代～玉已被发现并采来制作实用工具,到新石器时代～在磨制石器的过程中～人们发现抛光后的玉具有一种半透明的美丽色泽～令人爱不释手～古人因而将它与‚截肪?、‚羊脂?、‚鸡油?、‚蒸栗?、‚荔枝?联系起来。在新石器时代的墓葬中～考古工作者发现有死者口中含有美石或碎玉～饮食器中盛放珠、坠、碎玉石等的现象。例如20世纪50年代在南京北阴阳营和70年代在武威皇娘娘台的发掘～均发现此类现象。5有学者认为～这反映人们珍爱美石～或将其作为财富。然这种现象不见于房址和窖穴中。且臵于口内或食器之中～除解为食品之外～很难有更合理的解说了。由武威和南京二例已可断言～新石器时代晚期～玉或美石为鬼神食品的观念～已广播华夏大地。 玉为鬼神食品的证据～在文献中俯拾即是。 《山海经〃西山经》: 密山……丹水出焉……其中多白玉～是有玉膏。其源沸沸汤汤～黄帝是食是飨……瑾瑜之玉为良～坚栗精密～浊泽而有光。五色发作～以和柔刚。天地鬼神～是食是飨,君子服之～以御不祥。 这里讲密山的美玉～涉及到两种功能～一是鬼神食品～二是君子佩戴可以‚御不祥?。第二项功能因第一项功能而来:若有邪祟靠近人体～可食玉而不伤人体。应当说～玉殓葬兼有这两重含义:既可为墓主提供食品(如满城汉墓玉衣内的璧)～又可防止地下邪祟伤害墓主 (如玉衣、玉九窍塞)。 《山海经》诸山神灵的祠祀～多以玉器与毛(动物)、酒、糈(粮食制品)共同陈列或瘗埋或燔烧。试举二例。《南山经?鹊山》: 其祠之礼:毛用一璋玉瘗～糈用稌米～一璧、稻米～白菅为席。 毛指动物～配以一璋玉～埋入地下,糈指粮食供奉于几案～配以一璧。 ? 《西山经?瑜山》: 祠之用烛～斋百日～以百牺瘗～用百瑜汤,其酒百樽～婴以百硅百璧。 ‚汤?～郭璞云:‚或作炀。?郝懿行注:‚炀～炙燥也。?‚婴?～郭璞注:‚谓陈之以环～祭也,或日:婴即古罂字～谓盂也。?不论是陈于尊旁还是盛于盂中～均为以玉佐酒。值得注意的是～与一百头牺牲同埋的美玉是要先炙烤令熟的。这与考古发掘所见玉常有经火痕迹～可以互相印证。这是玉为鬼神食品的又一旁证。 《诗经?大雅?云汉》: 天降丧乱～饥馑荐臻。靡神不举～靡爱斯牲。圭璧既卒～宁莫我听。 圭璧与牺牲一起献给神灵～乞求上天降雨。圭璧显然是食品。 《诗经?小雅?天保》: 吉蠲为饎～是用孝享,檎祠蒸尝～于公先王。 据清人《韩诗遗说》考～‚吉蠲为饎?韩诗作‚吉圭为饎?。6韩诗文从字顺～提示了历史真相。 《楚辞?离骚》: 折琼枝以为馐兮～精琼糜以为粻。 屈原想象自己将与神灵共同远行～准备食品～皆用玉制。又《天问》: 缘鹄饰玉～后帝是飨。 以刻有鸟纹的玉进献神灵～这是屈赋的本意。然由于玉为神灵食品的观念东汉文人已不很清楚～所以王逸注《天问》此句～竟说是‚因缘烹鹄鸟之羹～修玉鼎～以事于汤?～把夏桀的事安到商汤头上～把上帝说成人王～把玉说成玉鼎。按考古中未发现玉鼎～亦无以为为饰之鼎。近人曹耀湘指出:‚玉～祀神之玉也。后帝～天帝也。?算是把这句话读懂了。7 中国乃礼仪之邦～典籍中十分常见的‚礼?字～其本义便是以玉飨食。我们同意王国维对‚礼?字的解说。《观堂集林》卷六《释礼》: 《说文》示部云:‚礼～履也。所以事神致福也～从示从禮～禮亦声。?又禮部:‚禮～行礼之器也～从豆象形。?殷虚卜辞有禮字……古,、珏同字……此诸字皆象二玉在器之形。古者行礼以玉～故《说文》曰‚豊～行礼之器?～其说古矣。惟许君不知,字即珏字～故但以‚从豆象形?解之。 以玉礼神～此在器中之玉有何功用,郑康成注‚六器?文云: 礼东方……大昊、句芒食焉。礼南方……炎帝、祝融食焉。礼西方……少昊、蓐收食焉。礼北方……颛顼、玄冥食焉。(《周礼?春官?大宗伯》郑注) 且看:青圭、赤璋、白琥、玄璜都被神灵‚食焉?了。‚食焉?解除为‚吃?外～还能有更合适的解释吗,郑氏注未言及苍璧与黄琮～但完全可以相信～苍璧、黄琮也是被天神地祗‚食焉?了。 三、琮璧功能再议 笔者曾撰《玉琮功能研究述评》(《文博》1993年第5期)、《玉琮功能刍议》(《考古与文物》1993年第4期)～在认定玉为鬼神食品的基础上～对于璧、琮功能做过深入探讨。笔者的观点是:璧象征肉片～其中有孔～犹如今新疆烤羊肉串。琮象征兽头或整体。时隔八九年～似未引起学人注意～或未能被学界认可。 这一观点得到的反响～就笔者所见～唯有一处:《中国文物报》2000年8月2日～第三版～李新伟文《<良渚文化研究>读后》。文章说该书作者淋漓尽致地为我们展示了中国史前考古学中最动人的思辨画面:关于玉琮的功能有23种见解～对玉璧的认识由祭天重器到新疆羊肉串。有些几近荒诞。但我们在暗笑竟有如此随意的学者～欣赏自我的严谨时～也应反省自己是不是正在作茧自缚。 我要感谢李新伟先生～他为笔者的观点留下了讨论的余地～也了笔者再次宣讲自己观点的勇气。 笔者之所以有信心～认为东汉人对古玉的理解不可据信～认为清儒也未弄清古玉功能问题～而作为今人～却可超越前人～‚补经传之阙亡～正诸儒之谬误?,《考古图?后记》,～原因在于～今人有大量考古成果可以依据。20世纪80、90年代以来～学者们依据近年考古发掘的丰硕成果～已将琮、璧的形制源流、纹饰演变轨迹大体理清。8 我们从琮、璧形制、纹饰的演变过程～可以清楚地看到其作为神灵食品的本质。 不少学者认为琮源于镯～笔者认可。琮‚外方内圆～是由镯外壁的长方形饰片发展而来。如图一～圆筒式镯。图二～有饰片的镯——琮。图三～饰片中部突出～使琢出的兽面更具立体感。图四～饰片突出接近方形的琮。由此可见～‚琮八方象地?～纯属后人附会。再看饰片上的纹饰～不是东汉人所谓的‚牙?～而是兽面。其特点是大眼獠牙～鼻孔向前。具獠牙而与古人生活密切相关的动物应是野猪。有学者曾试图论证野猪是先民崇拜对象～但证据薄弱:我们有了‚玉为鬼神食品?和‚君子服之以御不祥?的概念～就很容易理解～这野猪是献给鬼神的食品。还有学者用距良渚文化3000年之后道教所谓‚三矫?来解说琮上的兽面～认为兽面是协助巫师登天的‚龙、虎、鹿?或‚白虎?。我们知道龙、虎、鹿是没有伸出口外的獠牙的～所谓‚三矫?在良渚琮上是立不住脚的。 良渚琮在其后的发展中～纹饰上出现了小眼面纹或小鸟。它们与兽面是什么关系呢,这应是模拟和吸引神灵来飨。东夷民族以鸟类为其‚图腾?或祖先～这从《左传〃昭公十七年》郯子论‚少昊氏鸟名官?及甲骨文中殷王名称上往往有鸟纹可知。学者多有论证～兹不赘。反山M12:98琮王饰片间的‚神徽?～更形象地展示了神灵来飨的形象。戴羽冠的小 眼神凌驾于大眼獠牙兽面之上～这就是所谓‚神徽?的实质。 出于增多食品的愿望～宽短形琮又发展为多层高长型。其图像则 仍是宽短形～而以简化和层垒加高的方式表现。认为‚琮八方象地?的人又如何解释层垒增高的现象呢? 在寺墩3号墓～33件琮围绕墓主放臵,图五,。该墓24块璧有21块是人为砸碎后扔人墓中的。以琮、璧为‚通天地法器?或‚祭祀天地的礼器?～如何解释这些奇特的随葬方式呢,有比食品更恰当的解说吗? 玉琮到了商代～不再琢獠牙兽面～而是琢羊头、人面或蝉纹,图六)～与所谓‚龙、虎、鹿?相距更远～与商代用羌人作牺牲或以羊、蝉为美食更为接近。到了周代～琮成为素面方柱型。那是因为～周人以‚明德?治天下～不愿把任何族人或其图腾物作为献祭对象了。以琮为‚法器?～说它通天地受到动物帮助～又无法解释周琮何以光素无纹。春秋以后～琮成为传世品～或加以改琢～如曾侯乙墓的‚龙纹?琮和满城汉墓的九窍塞～与‚通天地法器?更无关了。 璧的纹饰走着与琮相反的道路。新石器时代的璧～基本上是光素无纹。如反山23号墓～随葬大小54件璧～制作粗率～随意叠放在墓主腿脚部位,图七,。要说这些璧是‚法器?～可‚象天?～无法理解:如果我们有了玉为鬼神食品的观念～对反山23号墓随葬现象就丝毫也不奇怪了。 璧中部皆穿一孔～这与‚天?有什么关系,‚璧圆象天?说者难以解释。如果我们又了解原始先民食肉多为火烤～恰如今之新疆烤羊肉串～对琮、璧定要琢出中孔便理解得更为真切。琮上琢兽面～因为琮象征的是总体的兽,璧为肉片～所以璧上不琢兽面。良渚璧上偶见 有细小的鸟纹图象,图八,～与琮上的鸟纹含义是相同的～即吸引神灵来飨。 原始先民将璧臵人墓中时砸碎或火烧的仪式～用两千年后汉儒的理论及今人的‚通天地法器?说也是无法解释的。 随着畜牧业的发展～肉食品有了剩余～便要制作腊肉、干肉。制作方法～不论是晾晒、火烤或风干～都要切成片状～臵于席上。腊肉或肉干上～便留下席纹印痕。于是人们看到～春秋以降的璧上有了编织物纹,青铜器上类似纹饰应由此而来,。后人不识此纹源流～便称之为‚云纹?、‚雷纹?或所谓‚蟠虺纹?。河南光山黄君孟墓‚蟠虺纹?璧～细密的纹饰之间还有十余只鸟首纹。9按黄氏为东夷后裔～这鸟与良渚琮璧上的鸟纹含义应是一样的。 由‚云雷纹?、‚蟠虺纹?入战国～变成了‚谷?、‚蒲?纹。‚象天?、‚通天地法器?说均无法解释这种演化～于是有所谓‚元气?、‚生命力?说等。我们认为～这种演化从侧面反映了干肉制作技术的进步:席变成了网～利于通风。网孔处肉凸起～便成‚谷纹?～网络处印痕～便是‚蒲纹?。这比汉儒所谓谷‚养人?～蒲‚安人?～更符合实际～合于情理。 西汉～谷蒲纹之外往往又加一圈凤纹或龙纹,图九,～还有所谓‚出廓?璧～在璧体外琢出龙或凤纹降临来飨,图十,。这龙凤与璧体的关系～仍是食与被食的关系～与良渚琮璧纹饰一脉相承～且与‚璧圆象天?说更不相干。 四、考古报告中的古玉功能问题 安徽省文物考古研究所《凌家滩玉器》,文物出版社2000年11月出版,载～在早于良渚的凌家滩遗址出土6件玉人～作者认为‚可能代表六种不同的神?。我们看这玉人双手缚于胸前～原可能洧绳～已腐朽不存～但琢有捆痕。作者以捆痕为‚臂环?～且以8号墓随葬玉环两堆为据。我们看玉环～最大者内径6(1、最小者5(6厘米～如何能作为臂环佩戴于成 年男‚神人?手臂,我们又注意到～东夷地区出土的这类玉人以及人头像,例如新干大洋洲所出‚神人兽面形饰?和黄君孟夫妇墓所出玉雕人头～见图十一,～后脑勺上多有平行而深的痕迹。我们认为～这是斧钺之痕～这是所谓‚神人?实为牺牲之证～这牺牲实为献给神灵的食品。值得注意的是～这类玉人皆垂有耳环。凌家滩发掘44座墓葬～很少见到耳饰块。87M4墓、98M29墓各发现1件～其余二件出于探方和征集得来。这说明～本地本族人不佩耳饰玦～耳环是外族人的装饰～这现象与良渚文化相同。这更说明玉人不具有‚神?的地位～因为在上古～‚神不歆非类?～不是本族人不能成为本族的神。 我们还注意到～这类玉人往往琢有露出口外的獠牙。例如美国斯密塞纳美术馆收藏的一件,图十二,～正面臣字眼～獠牙～背面圆眼暴齿。这显然是在将玉人琢为兽类～兽类中的野猪～正是雄性有獠牙而雌性无獠牙。这件玉人头顶还有羽冠双眼物降临～这令人想到良渚‚神徽?。‚神徽?下部的‚神兽?～如本文上节所述～实为献给鬼神的食品。如果再联想到东夷民族中曾经流行的凿去上颌侧门齿或犬齿的习俗～10对于玉人刻意琢出獠牙或暴出口外的门齿～应该有新的 认识了吧?再将这类丑人说成是‚神?～实在是不妥当的。 凌家滩20号墓出土管钻下来的玉芯111件～还有许多玉器的边角料。学者一般认为这是一位玉匠的墓葬。那么～这位玉匠为什么要收藏这么多玉芯及边角料臵于墓中呢?人们可以有各种勉强的解说～但真正有说服力的～还是它们可以作为鬼神的食品。 江西省文物考古研究所《新干商代大墓》(文物出版社1997年9月出版)载～墓中出一侧身羽人佩饰。作者认为～此玉人‚是该地区远古土著先越民族鸟图腾和鸟崇拜的一种遗俗和变异。比之妇好墓的侧身玉人～新干的更多地具有神人意味～它有机地把人、兽、鸟集于一身?。对于这件‚神人?后脑勺上掏雕出的三个链环(图十三)～作者仅说它‚表现出高超的琢玉工艺水平?。我们要问一下:什么人才会被人从身后(或以头发挽住)套以链环?身份高贵者或‚崇拜对象?能用这种‚装饰?吗?所谓‚神人?～实是献给神灵的牺牲。 陈德安《三星堆——古蜀王国的圣地》,四川人民出版社2000年7月出版,载～‚二号祭祀坑出土一件呈平行四边形的玉璋?～其上琢有‚祭山图案?～图中有‚这种玉牙璋插在神山山腰两侧的祭祀场面?。作者解释说:‚祭祀山神用玉石器作为供物～这可能是渊源于原始的自然崇拜。在古人看来……人们所获取的自然物～是神灵赐予的一部分。按照自然崇拜的祭祀～往往要将获得的自然物的一部分奉还其神灵作为报答……玉石取诸山川～为山川之精英～所以古人用玉石器作为供物进行献祭。? 请看～由于不明白玉为神灵食品～对于玉璋献祭的原因～作者绕 了多大弯子～其实还是没有说清楚。我们知道～所谓祭祀～就是将美好的食品供献给神灵。既然‚金玉石水等自然物?都‚归这些神灵管辖或为神灵所有?～他要你献祭的那一点点‚作为报答?有什么意义,且产玉之山在山川中只占少数～为什么《山海经》诸山神灵的祠祀几乎都要用玉,又有谁见过产金之山要将黄金供上祭坛, 王斌主编《虢国墓地的发现与研究》(社会科学文献出版社2000年7月出版)其中收入姜涛、李秀萍《虢国墓地出土玉器的认识与研究》一文～对20世纪90年代发掘的9座墓中所出的千余件‚礼玉?进行研究～认为西周中晚期璧‚除用于祭祖先、祭天地及事鬼神外～还应是区别等级贵贱的象征～即璧的使用是分级别的?。 其证据之一～是2009墓出一件‚龙纹璧?～‚极可能是周王赏赐于虢公之物?～‚应是《周礼》所言‘六瑞’之一?。《周礼》‚六瑞?说‚公执桓圭、侯执信圭、伯执躬圭?～虢公不可能是子、男爵～‚龙纹璧?也不可能是‚谷、蒲?璧～怎么可能据以证明《周礼 》‚六瑞?呢,我们知道～晋侯曾送虞公一件‚垂棘之璧?～,《左传‘僖公二年》,～郑伯送鲁公一璧以借许田,《左传(桓公元年》,～诸如此类～《左传》中记载甚多～这些璧的馈赠转移如何‚区别等级贵贱?呢,作者又说～‚璧在敛尸之时～也是有严格的等级之分的?。我们且以虢公2001号墓和2009号墓来看～其随葬件数、大小、厚薄、精粗都不一样～2001墓6件臵于尸身下,2009墓27件～臵胸腹部及外棺盖上。这些区别～如何表现‚严格的等级区分?,又如何证明《周礼》,作者说:‚六器之为物～均具有多种不司的功能与用途～即同样之器,用于不同场 合～则具有不同的功能～而其功能是可以转移的。?这与作者讲用璧‚有严格的等级区分?是自相矛盾的。究其故～在于作者没有抓住璧的最基本的功～以至于迷惘。璧最基本的功能～便是作为食品献给鬼神。 虢国2001号墓主口含玉55枚～‚质地为和阗玉～均系小块碎玉?。这样典型的证据～足可说明‚玉为鬼神食品?。这又令人想到曾侯乙墓～墓主口内含细小玉器21件～小的如一粒稻谷～大的比蚕豆小～均被雕作猪、狗、牛、羊、鱼、鸭等形。11这众多肉用动物填于死者口内～除了解作食物～难道还有更合理的解说吗? 壬午寒露定稿于陕西师大历史文化学院秦陶簃 1香港中文大学考古艺术中心编:《南中国及邻近地区古文化研究》～香港中文大学出版社～1994年。 2王永波:《耜形端刃器的起源、定名和用途》～《考古学报》2002年第2期。 3参蒋伯潜《十三经概论》第257页～上海古籍出版社～1983年4月版。 4有学者认为～《大宗伯》‚子男执璧?‚应是简章错乱所致?(王永波《耜形端刃器的起源、定名和用 )。这是过分执信《周礼》～极力替《周礼》回护～ 途》～《考古学报》2002年第2期 要把《周礼》当作信史。如果说此处是‚简章错乱?～《春官?典瑞》、《秋官?大行人》皆有‚子执谷璧?、‚男执蒲璧?～难道都是错简? 5见《考古学报》1958年第1期和1978年第4期。 6臧庸:《韩诗遗说》～《丛书集成》～中华书局～1991年。 7见游国恩《天问纂义》第298页～中华书局～1982年。 8其代表作～可举二例:a(邓淑蘋:《考古出土新石器时代玉琮研究》～《故宫学术季刊》1988年秋。b(杨建芳:《玉琮之研究》～《考古与文物》1990年第2期。 9见《考古》1984年第4期。 10参考韩康信、潘其风《我国拔牙风俗的源流及其意义》～《考古》1981年第1期。 11见《文物》1979年7期。 玉琮功能研究述评 八十年代～新石器时代玉器大批出土～把玉器在古代社会生活中的地位问题十分突出的摆到人们面前。在赞叹中国古玉文化灿烂辉煌的同时～人们对众多玉器的用途却不甚了了。而诸多玉器中～最难解释又十分重要的莫过于玉琮。如果对琮功能没有正确的解答～则这一时期的文化精神面貌也就不能有科学的阐释。研究玉琮功能～成为刻不容缓的课题。 据笔者不完全统计～从一百年前吴大澂认定玉琮器名算起～涉及琮功能问题的中文书籍和论文约有八十多篇,其中1981—1990年十年间约有四十篇。1这充分说明学者们对这一问题的重视。如有的学者所说～这是考古学界的一股狂飚,自本世纪初以来～琮功能问题‚一路狂飙～引发多少讨论和争议?2。张光直先生甚至建议将新石器时代的晚期称作‚玉琮时代?3。遗憾的是～尽管专家们作出了诸多解释～关于玉琮功能问题迄今尚未有可以基本公认的答案。 归结起来～学者们主要通过形制源流和纹饰含义两条渠道探索玉琮功能,其次～学者们还利用了涉及玉琮的古代文献和可能与琮功能相关的民族学资料。 本文拟就形制与纹饰两方面的研究情况作扼要介绍～并对海内外学者的几种解说试加评述～期望能有助于今后的研究。 一、对玉琮形制源流的探讨 谈论玉琮器形～最早当推《说文解字》:‚琮～瑞玉～大八寸～似车釭?。所谓‚车釭?指车轮轴部位安装的一内园中空、外为八角形 的零件。但宋明以来～人们弄不清楚琮究竟是什么样子。乾隆帝面对宫中收罗来的玉琮～称之为‚杠头?～认为是‚辇辂舁竿之饰??。‚杠头?说显然是一种误会。正如周南泉先生所指出的～早在‚辇辂舁竿之饰?出现之前就有了玉琮?。 乾隆之后近百年～光绪十八年,1889年,～金石学家吴大澂在其所著《古玉图考》中引述嘉庆年间文字学家钱砧的说法～指出～‚今世所传古玉‘釭头’～其大者皆琮也?。至此～‚琮?之名称与实物～算是结合在一起了。 《古玉图考》录有三十多件琮～大体上可分为四类:宽短形,图1,、高长型,图2,、细小型,图3,、方柱素面型,图4,。四类之间关系如何～何为祖型～何为次生,吴大澂时代还不可能弄清。 吴大澂之后～由器型起源推测玉琮功能～最初有法国学者吉斯拉氏,G〃Gieseler,提出的‚中霤?说。他认为琮是‚原始汉民族住在小屋或洞穴的时代～在屋脚建有粘土制的圆筒形有孔之物、或即烟筒～名叫做‘中霤’……于是《礼记》就有‘中央土～祀中霤’及‘家主中霤而国主社’之文～中霤遂有崇拜的礼仪发生?6。‚中霤?是上古泛神论时代的居室之神～很难说与随葬于墓中的成批的琮有什么关系。日本学者滨田耕作对此就表示‚不易率表同意?。滨田氏自己也努力在上古实用器物中寻找玉琮原形～认定琮原是一种‚有圆孔而方柱外形的实用品?。这实用品是什么,他承认实在弄不清楚～似乎倾向于同意《说文》所谓‚似车釭?之形的东西7。 1947年～比利时学者密舍尔,H〃Michel,认为琮就是《尚书舜 典》‚在璇玑玉衡?的‚玉衡?～可以用来观测天象?。此说已有学者指出其牵强附会?。 1948年～郭宝钧先生推测琮前身为木质的‚织机之上持综翻交者??。此说与车釭说一样令人怀疑。因为五千年前似乎还不会有装着‚翻交持综?机件的织机,而所谓‚木琮?应比玉琮早～就更渺茫了。 本世纪二十年代～宗教史学术界流行一种寻找‚地母?、‚谷母?、‚神女?的风尚。学者安克斯认为琮是象征女阴性器～代表母系祖先11,瑞典学者高本汉则认为琮是藏男子性器之函～琮是‚祖?的‚宗器?12。台湾学者凌纯声先生赞同安氏之说～认为琮是后世‚木主?的前身～是‚象征女性阴器～为女祖的神主?13。古玉专家那志良先生也表示赞同安氏之说14。与民族学家有所不同的是～那先生讲琮‚象征女阴?而不讲仿自女阴～因为对于琮型制起源～那先生同意近人陈大年说～认为琮是‚间接模仿日常用具?～它是‚方勒形的扩大?,‚方勒?即吴大澂书中所谓‚方玏?～见图3右,15。 与那先生有些相似～周南泉认为琮‚代表女性生殖器是可能的?。他更进一步设想良渚文化中围绕墓主一周的玉琮～可能表示‚其后或妻妾宫女以物代人为墓主陪葬?16。同时～他也认为琮源于玏子～‚古代的玉琮很可能是从比其更早的‘外方内圆牙身’型玉管状饰演变而来的?,他进一步认为～玉管形佩,按:即‚玏子?,的形制已具有‚天圆地方?说的‚依据和含义?～因而可以说～‚玉琮仿自‘地’形17。? 女阴说没有被众多学者接受～因为琮的大小形制多种多样～琮上 的纹饰也与女阴无关,良渚墓中不论男女都有以琮随葬的现象,余杭反山墓地‚琮王?,M12:98,臵于头顶～这些都是女阴说难以解释的。作为女阴说最有力的根据～是《周礼》‚以黄琮礼地?～‚宗后以为权?～‚宗后守之?～大琮‚为内镇?～《仪礼》‚享夫人以琮?等材料。但这些材料上距良渚文化有两千多年,琮的这些用途完全可能是后世儒家的安排,同时～《周礼〃冬官〃玉人》还有‚天子以为权?的记载～可见并不是只能用于女性。杨建芳先生更指出～《周礼》‚以黄琮礼地?是与‚六器?中其余五器——圭、璧、璋、琥、璜相提并论的～而‚六器?又与‚六瑞?相提并论。良渚、石峡、龙山文化中都没有璋、琥和带谷、蒲纹的璧～‚六器?、‚礼地?等‚决非新石器时代晚期的?18。 至于说玉琮源于‚玉管形佩?,即玩玉家们所称‚玏子?,～有两个问题没有解决。一是琮与方玏之间的尺寸差距甚大～而迄今未发现有过渡的中间尺寸的琮～琮由方玏扩大而来的说法尚缺少证据,二是玏子本身的功能究竟是什么～玏子上的花纹究竟意味着什么～同样也是问题。 与玏子扩大说相反的～还有勒子由琮缩小而来的说法19。此说同样不能解答上述问题。 当初吴大澂编《古玉图考》时～将勒子、长高形琮、宽短形琮以及圆筒形而有浮雕长方形饰片的似镯形玉器都称作琮～这说明吴氏有相当的眼力～认定其形制及功能具有共性。尤其是他将筒形似镯者称为琮～启示后人发现了二者具有的渊源关系。 五十年代～日本学者梅原末治提出琮源于镯20。此说在六十年代得到林巳奈夫等人的赞同21～近年更为众多学者认可。王巍将宽短型与高长型琮分别称为A型、B型～确定A型源于镯～而B型起源‚暂且存疑22?。邓淑蘋曾综合良渚玉琮资料排比研究～推测琮形制发生自镯～认为在发展为外方内圆形状的同时～又发展了上下堆叠～层累加高的过程23。笔者认为这基本上弄清了高长型与宽短型琮之间的渊源关系,但对层累加高的心理动因～还应有所解说。至于玏子是否是高长型大琮的初期形态～因为缺乏中间尺寸的过渡形态～邓氏取了存疑态度24。杨建芳近年对由镯到琮的演化过程做了很好的解说～但未涉及宽短型琮与方勒和柱形大琮的关系问题25。 我们认为～高长、宽短大琮与方勒式小琮有不同的源头。如果说前者源于镯～那么后者自然应源于项链串饰。这一点～由玏子在墓中常见的位臵可以证明,没有中间尺寸也可以作为反证。镯与项链的共同点～在于他们都被人们佩带在身且都用玉制作～应该说是出于某种相同的观念～它们被琢出了相同的花纹。 然而问题在于～弄清了琮与玏子源于镯和串饰～并没有达到弄清琮在新石器时代晚期的具体功能的目的。因为人们一般认为镯与项链是装饰品～而琮显然已经具有了超乎装饰意义之外的形而上的含义。这含义是什么,看来单从型制渊源上寻找是无能为力了。 1988年～六十年代曾论证过琮源于镯的林巳奈夫先生又对被滨田氏否定了半个世纪的吉斯拉氏‚中霤?说发生了兴趣26。这实际上反映了人们对玉琮功能问题的一筹莫展。 二、对玉琮奇异纹饰的探讨 确认饰有如图2琮上那种奇异纹饰的琮出于新石器晚期以良渚文化为中心的华东地区～这是近年来的事情,良渚式玉琮的出土或传世～则有数千年的历史了。对于良渚琮上奇异的纹饰～前人多发‚不知何所取义?的慨叹。《白虎通》称其为‚牙?～吴大澂称有此纹者为‚组琮?27。本世纪七十年代～国外学者称其为‚鬼面纹?或‚鬼神像?28。八十年代～考古工作者有时称良渚琮的上下两种纹饰为‚象征兽面纹?和‚形象兽面纹?29。有时称为‚简化兽面纹?和‚象形兽面纹?30～或称‚简、繁兽面纹?31。也有学者称琮上的两层纹饰为‚简化变形兽面纹?和‚重圈扇形目兽面纹?32。 1986年～台北邓淑蘋女士在系统研究中国古玉奇异纹饰的基础上指出～‚不论其含义为表达‘神’、‘祖’、‘人’或‘动物’～所强调的总是一双严肃、凝重而神秘的双眼?33。她将良渚玉琮上成组的两种纹饰分别称‚小眼面纹?和‚大眼面纹?这无疑是较为科学的命名。邓淑蘋注意到新石器时代晚期华东沿海玉器纹饰‚常以二元的形式出现?。这是十分重要的揭示～有利于进一步探究纹饰含义。 1987年～车广锦参照收藏于美国的良渚式山字形器和D形器上的纹饰～在林巳奈夫和杨建芳认识的基础上～指出玉琮组合纹饰的上节为‚人面纹?～下节则为通常所说的‚兽面纹?35～这是对琮纹饰认识的深化。 车广锦据此进一步推断玉琮起源于‚图腾柱?～认为‚玉琮的早期兽面纹～即动物图腾神像～处于图腾崇拜阶段～中期的组合纹～即 图腾神像和人类神像～处于图腾崇拜和人类崇拜阶段～晚期的人面纹～即人类神像～处于人类神崇拜阶段?,而后来～‚只作为氏族神圣标志的图腾柱逐渐消失?～但玉琮却独立发展为‚整个良渚文化的神圣标志?36～这一系列推断是颇大胆的～但存在一些问题。 近年台湾学者也曾就此有过较为深入的讨论。所谓‚图腾柱?～不一定就是膜拜对象,其纹饰也决无上下四角重复相同的现象。图腾柱质地一般都是木刻～树立在村落、房屋或墓地前～与良渚专用玉制并且随葬在墓中是完全不同的。琮功能与图腾柱的功能间究竟有多少共同之处～尚有待深入研究。将琮喻作‚图腾柱?～只是一种文化名词的借用37。 大陆学者中～近年仍有认为琮源于图腾民族的图腾柱的看法38～和认定‚兽面?为‚图腾?～‚人面?为‚巫师?的主张39。 近年良渚玉器的成批发现～为研究纹饰提供了丰富资料。特别是反山M12:98‚琮王?上‚神人兽面复合像?的发现～引起海内外学者极大兴趣。反山简报称其为‚神徽?～并指出～‚良渚玉器上通常雕琢的主题纹样～过去所说的‘兽面纹’实为神人兽面像的简化形式。无论是繁是简～反映的都是良渚部族崇拜的‘神徽’?40。 ‚神徽?的说法似乎已经约定俗成～不过学者们还是各依己见加以诠释。如杨建芳认为是‚神人骑神兽?41,林巳奈夫则论证其为承自河姆渡文化的‚太阳神?42～又释‚神徽?为‚气?的图象43,张光直称之为‚巫矫符号?44,邓淑蘋称之为‚神祖动物面复合像?45等等。 事实上～‚神徽?的提法尚未经科学论证～只是一种暂时的代词～既是‚神徽?～为什么反山M12:98一个琮上就刻有八个之多,为什么在良渚文化山形、D形、璜形、倒梯形玉饰片上～它又被随意拆卸组装～而后来又被简化到只剩圆圈和横棱,为什么只刻在琮和佩饰玉片上而不刻在更易刻划的璧上,为什么只刻在玉器上而不刻在陶器上,如果把‚神徽?放到整个良渚文化历史背景上去考察～它是否称得上‚崇拜对象?也是有问题的。 三、对玉琮功能的几种解说 在纹饰含义未能完全弄清的情况下～海内外学者们各依其学术传统对琮功能做了取向不同的解说。 大陆学者的意见大致可分为两类～一类认为葬玉用于对尸体起保护作用～一类认为随葬玉器用于显示死者的财产和身分。 夏鼐先生认为～把玉器‚放在死者身旁～可以对尸体起了神秘的巫术作用?46。惜夏鼐先生未能对此作深入的讨论～也未明确上溯到新石器时代的玉琮。王巍47、李文明48、杨建芳49表示了对夏氏意见的赞同～但都未有深入的论证。杨建芳先生认为玉琮是神人或神兽,以头部象征,的具象化和立体化50～此说很有道理～但古人将琮臵于墓中用意何在,还有待进一步探索。 第二类意见可以南京博物院寺墩发掘报告为代表。该报告认为‚璧琮等珍贵的物品～是作为死者所有的财产随葬的?～‚是死者身分的象征?51。这里有一个疑问:‚作为财产?和‚象征身份?～是今人的观感还是原始人的目的,如果说是今人观感～那么原始人是否还另 有用意,如果说原始人的目的便是如此～那么琮璧等物在生前是干什么用的,应该有所解释。 人们往往引用摩尔根在《古代社会》中所谈印第安人的观念来解释璧、琮随葬问题:印第安人‚生前认为最珍贵的物品～都成为已死的所有者的随葬品～以供他在幽冥中继续使用?52。应该说～这样的引文没有解答琮、璧等玉器的功能问题。因为首先要说明死者生前如何使用～才谈得到死后的‚继续使用?。 有的学者认为～‚琮、钺、璧是神权、军权和财权的象征。这些良渚巫师的形象即为一手握琮、一手握钺～大量玉璧集于脚下?53。这里对钺和璧的理解都颇有道理～但说巫师‚一手握琮?则似不妥。因为许多墓葬都远不止一个琮～也不是臵于手部。如著名的寺墩M3～一件矮型琮臵于头右上方～32件柱型琮围绕人骨架。这些琮～很难说是在‚象征神权?。并且～良渚琮是否用来祭祀～尚属争论中的话题～尚有待科学的证明～而并不是‚已为学术界所公认?54。 对于上述两类意见的缺陷～台北邓淑蘋女士有所批评。她认为‚避邪?之类‚负面性的想法?～可能是受了汉魏六朝石雕辟邪神兽和唐墓中‚镇墓兽?等艺术品的影响,而‚只认为是财富或权势的象征?的说法～则似嫌简单化了。与此相反～海外学者则多‚作正面性的深入解释?～即从琮在现实社会生活中的作用进行深入的探讨55。他们的意见有一个共同点～即可以把琮功能概括为‚沟通天地?四个字。其具体解说～有代表性的～可举四家: 一、张光直认为～琮的外方内圆～‚象征天地的贯穿?,琮上的纹 饰～则是帮助巫师上天下地的‚三矫?,琮是巫师‚通天地的法器?56。 二、林巳奈夫认为～琮是宗庙祭祀中请神主凭依的器物～琮的中孔便是神灵凭依的小室～器表的鬼神面可起保护死者灵魂的作用57。 三、邓淑蘋将琮与璧联系起来考虑:璧圆象天～琮方象地～符合当时人们的宇宙观。琮中心的圆孔是供木棍贯穿竖立琮所用～琮上再臵一壁～组合成贯通天地的法器58。 四、袁德星先生则推测～女巫把蓍草或数筹从玉琮中孔贯下～使其洒落在坛前～而后观察蓍草散落的卦象。这样～琮便发挥了‚沟通天地的管道?的功能59。 我们可以看出～四家的说法都是很具联想力的、大胆的推测～但也实在只能说是推测而已。台北杜正胜先生提出质疑:‚良渚文化最大的特点是以大批玉器随葬……有人解释良渚葬玉会有祭祀天地的作用～其实中国古代祭祀对象分天神、地祇和人鬼三大类～墓葬当属人鬼～和礼天祭地无关。?60由于迄今科学发掘的琮、璧都是随葬于墓中的～所以杜氏的质疑很有道理。看来～即便解答了琮在阳世间的功用～对于解释墓葬中众多的琮、璧～仍有隔靴骚痒之感。可以说～对于琮在良渚时代的功能～不论是阳间还是阴间～我们的知识都是很贫乏的。 行文至此～不禁慨叹～倘能起古人而问之～那答案～想必是十分简单的吧: 其实也未尝简单。因为今人的思想方法与原始人之间有着显著的 差别。列维〃布留尔关于原始思维方式的‚原逻辑?特性的论述～不是没有道理的。原始人追寻错觉～他们对梦呓、狂语的相信～往往超过相信现实。他们中流行的一些‚集体表象?～今人是无法理喻的。同样的～我们用今人的观念似乎稳妥地解释了上古习俗～也许会令先民茫然不知所云。比如说以私有财产的随葬来‚显示其等级、财富和权力?～笔者很怀疑～那笼罩在鬼神观念之中～生活在以血缘为纽带的大家庭公社之内的先民～有没有用实物来‚显示?那些今人颇重视的概念的愿望, 因此笔者认为～前人研究的不足之处～是对中国上古观念研究不够。其次～则是对与琮有关的其它器物的综合考察不够～对考古中发现的特殊葬俗的重视不够。这些～看来是学者们在今后的研究中应该注意弥补的。 注: 11981年前的论文～参考杨建芳《中国古玉书目》1982年～香港中文大学。1981——1990年～参考邓淑蘋《百年来古玉研究的回顾与展望》文末所附《参考书目》,见《庆祝高去寻先生八秩华诞论文集》1991年～台北。 2邓淑蘋《狂飙中的玉琮》～《故宫文物月刊》1989年1月台北。页57。 3张光直《谈琮及其在中国古史上的意义》～《文物与考古论集》1986年～页259。 4乾隆《御制诗》五集～卷79～页2。 5周南泉《玉琮源流考》、《故宫博物院院刊》1990年1期～页90。 6转引自滨田耕作《古玉概说》～胡肇椿译～中华书局1993年版～第七章。 7同6 8参见邓淑蘋《故宫博物院藏新石器时代玉器研究之二——琮与琮类玉器》～《故宫学术季刊》1988年冬～台北～页24。 9参见夏鼐《所谓璇玑不会是天文仪器》～《考古学报》1984年4期～页404。 10《古玉新诠》～中研院史语所编《历史语言研究所集刊》第二十本下册～1949年商务印书馆～页29——30。 11参见于13凌纯声文 12参见于13凌纯声文 13凌纯声《中国古代神主与阴阳性器崇拜》。《中央研究院民族研究所集刊》第八册。1959年～台北。安氏、高氏之说亦参见于凌文。 14那志良《明尼安波那斯美术馆所藏之中国古玉,下,》～《故宫学术季刊》1991年春～页25。 15那志良《说琮》～《大陆杂志》11卷二期。1955年～页53。陈大年说见《陈大年所藏玉器、石器、琉璃器》1937年～收入那志良《古玉图籍汇刊》1978年。 16同5。页90 17a、同5～页82～89—90。b、周南泉《试论太湖地区新石器时代玉器》～《考古与文物》1985年5期～页83。 18杨建芳《玉琮之研究》～《考古与文物》1990年2期～页64。至于良渚时代有无璋、琥～学术界尚有争议。如璋～学者们多称一种半圭形玉刀为璋。周南泉认为～良渚文化所见倒梯形玉佩‚形如虎头～上有面纹?～‚可能是琥形器?。,同17b～页86。, 19罗曼莉《玉器的起源和发展》～《艺术家》第30期1977年11月～台北。页31。 20梅原末治～见《考古学杂志》42期3号～1957年～页1-8。 21林巳奈夫～见《东方学报》第四十册～1969年～页290—291。 22王巍《良渚文化玉琮刍议》～《考古》1986年11期。页1014。 23邓淑蘋《古代玉器上奇异纹饰的研究》～《故宫学术季刊》1986年秋。页8。 24邓淑蘋《考古出土新石器时代玉石琮研究》～《故宫学术季刊》1988年秋。页2。 25同18～页57—59～62。 26林巳奈夫～见《东方学报》第六十册～1988年。 27吴大澂《古玉图考》1889年。 28转引自23页3。 29汪遵国《良渚文化‚玉敛葬?述略》《文物》1984年2期。页27。 ～页1010。 30同22 31殷志强《红山、良渚文化玉器的比较研究》《北方文物》1988年1期。页11。 32同5～页86。 33同23～页2。 34同23～页26。 35车广锦《良渚文化玉琮纹饰探析》～《东南文化》1987年3期 页18。 36同35～页21。 37a、袁德星《由礼地到通天——通天的管道》～《故宫文物月刊》1990年3月。页30,31。b、邓淑蘋《古玉新诠》～《故宫文文物刊》1990年6月。页74,75。c、袁德星《上帝与上天》～《故宫文物月刊》1990年10月。页67、69。d、邓淑蘋《与袁德星先生的两点小商榷》～《故宫文物月刊》1990年12月。页126,127。 38刘斌《良渚文化玉琮初探》～《文物》1990年2期。页34。 39袁靖《试论良渚文化玉器纹饰的含义》～《文博》1990年1期～页63。 40浙江省文物考古研究所反山考古队《浙江余杭反山良渚墓地发掘简报》,王明达执笔,～《文物》1988年1期。页12、31。 41同18～页63。 42林巳奈夫《所谓饕餮纹表现的是什么》～《日本考古学研究者〃中国考古学论文集》1990年～香港。页162,166。 43林巳奈夫～见《东方学报》第六十一册～1989年。 44张光直《濮阳三蹻与中国美术上的人兽母题》～《文物》1988年11期～页39。 45邓淑蘋《故宫博物院所藏新石器时代玉器研究之二——琮与琮类玉器》～《故宫学术季刊》1988年冬。页28,29 46夏鼐《汉代的玉器——汉代玉器中传统的延续和变化》～《考古学报》1983年2期。页137 47同22页1015。 48李文明《关于良渚文化的两个问题》《考古》1986年11期。页1008。 49同18页63。 50同49 51南京博物院《1982年江苏常州武进寺墩遗址的发掘》～《考古》1984年2期～页124。 52a、见29～34页。b、见48～页1007。 53牟永抗《良渚玉器上神崇拜的探索》～《庆祝苏秉琦考古五十五年论文集》1989年～页193。 54同39～页63。 55同24～页53。 56同3～页254,255。 57同26。 58同24页54,57。 59同37a～页33,34。 60杜正胜《夏代考古及其国家发展的探索》～《考古》1991年1期。 (英文版 ) Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule > real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses. Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline, exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of 10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives, around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions < new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150 about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits. Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.